Introduction
Chapter 1. Types of obsolete words in modern Russian
§ one. obsolete words
§ 2. Archaisms
§ 3. Historicisms
§ 4. The use of obsolete words in works of art
Chapter 2. Obsolete words in the work of A.S. Pushkin "The Bronze Horseman"
§ 1. The use of archaisms in the story "The Bronze Horseman"
§ 2. The use of historicisms in the story "The Bronze Horseman"
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
object of our study are obsolete words (archaisms and historicisms).
The purpose of this work– consider the functioning of obsolete words in a literary text.
To achieve this goal, it was necessary to perform a number of tasks:
explore theoretical literature on the topic and define the basic concepts;
highlight historicisms and archaisms in a literary text;
determine what varieties of obsolete words the author uses in his work.
Reveal the functions of obsolete words in the analyzed work
Research material served as the story of A.S. Pushkin "The Bronze Horseman".
Chapter 1. Types of obsolete words in modern Russian § 1. Obsolete words
The disappearance of words and their individual meanings from the language is a complex phenomenon that occurs slowly and not immediately (and not always) leading to the loss of the word from the vocabulary of the language in general. The loss of a word or one or another of its meanings is the result of a straightforward process: in a number of cases, obsolete words subsequently return again to a long process of archaization of the corresponding linguistic fact, when it is initially made from the phenomenon of an active vocabulary into the property of a passive dictionary and only then is gradually forgotten and completely disappears from the language .
Words fall out of use for various reasons. Many of them are forgotten as soon as some phenomenon or object disappears from life. Naturally, in this case, as a rule, a sharp change in their meaning also occurs (cf. the fate, for example, of such words as decree, soldier, ministry, etc.).
For example, a new life for some of the words denoting military ranks began when new military ranks were introduced in the Red Army. obsolete words soldier, corporal, lieutenant, captain, major, colonel, general, admiral etc. acquired a new meaning and became common words. In 1946 they got new life obsolete words minister, ministry in connection with the change in the name of the government of the USSR (Soviet people's commissars was transformed into the Council of Ministers of the USSR).
Obsolete words, the most common in works of art, are placed in explanatory dictionaries with litter "outdated."(obsolete). From the words found in the written monuments of the past, scientists compile historical dictionaries, for example, now the “Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 11-17 centuries” has begun to appear, edited by S.G. Barkhudarov.
Obsolete words, which together form the outdated vocabulary of the Russian language, represent a complex and multilayered system. The reason for this is their heterogeneity and diversity in terms of: 1) the degree of their obsolescence, 2) the reasons for their archaization, and 3) the possibility and nature of their use.
According to the degree of obsolete, first of all, a group of words are distinguished that are currently completely unknown to ordinary speakers of the modern Russian literary language and therefore incomprehensible without appropriate references. These include:
a) words that have completely disappeared from the language, not currently found in it even as part of derivative words ( locks- puddle, which- argument, prosinets- February, stern- paternal uncle nety- sister's nephew cancer- grave, tomb, etc.);
b) words that are not used in the language as separate words, but are found as the root parts of derivative words: rope - rope, circle - ridicule (to scold) lie - boil, (cook, ravine), beef - livestock (beef, beef), sleeping - skin (burrs), buldyga - bone (bastard), mzhura - darkness, haze (squint), thin - skilled (artist) soon- skin (weed), insidious- blacksmith (deceit), publican- tax collector (ordeal), donate- give (alms), etc.
c) words that have disappeared from the language as separate meaningful units, but are still used as part of phraseological turns: falcon - an old battering ram, a large battering ram (goal like a falcon); zga - road (cf. path; not a zga is visible); stake - a small piece of land (no stake, no yard), etc.
All these words have fallen out of the vocabulary of the language and are now firmly forgotten. All of them have nothing to do with the lexical system of the modern Russian literary language and are not even included in its passive vocabulary. All of them, finally, are facts of previous, in general, distant eras in the development of the Russian language. Unlike obsolete words, they are best called old.
The question arises whether it makes sense to consider such facts when analyzing the vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language, in which they do not really exist. It turns out there is. And this is due to the fact that old words(or obsolete words of the second degree) are still occasionally used in necessary cases, and now, of course, in the form of special verbal inlays, external to the words surrounding them, and usually with the necessary explanations. Thus, in individual speech works, such facts can be found even now, and this is precisely what does not allow us to exclude them from consideration in the analysis of modern vocabulary, despite the fact that they have nothing to do with the latter. Old words (see below for specific cases of their use) are opposed by the degree of obsolescence to a group of obsolete words, which already consists of such lexical units that speakers of modern Russian literary of the language are known, but are part of its passive vocabulary and are used only for certain stylistic purposes.
These are already real units of the language, although they have a limited scope of use and specific properties.
Some of these obsolete words include: verst, konka, vershok, student, policeman, bursa, this (that one), in vain (seeing), iroystvo, barber, tokmo (only), verb (speak), in order (to), coldness (cold), etc.
It is natural that great importance in the degree of obsolescence of a particular word and a separate meaning, the time of its exit from active use has. To a large extent, however, it is also determined by: 1) the place of the given word with the corresponding meaning in the nominative system of the national language, 2) the initial prevalence of the word and the duration of use in the active dictionary, 3) the presence or absence of a clear and direct connection with related words and etc. Often a word that has long been out of active use is still not forgotten by speakers, although it occurs sporadically in their speech, and vice versa, there are cases when a word that has moved into the passive vocabulary of the language relatively recently is forgotten and dropped out of the language.
For example, words hunger, lie, disaster left the active vocabulary of written speech (in spoken language they did not exist before) more than 100 years ago, however, they are still understandable in their basic meanings to speakers of modern Russian. On the contrary, forgotten, completely unknown in their semantics for the vast majority of Russian speakers now are the words ukom(county committee) interruption, that were in active use compared to previously noted hunger, lie, disaster recently.
Since toponymy (names of rivers, lakes, settlements, etc.) and anthroponymy (personal and family names) are the most stable facts in the vocabulary, a lot of what has already left the language as common nouns is preserved in toponymy and anthroponymy as proper names: river Shuya(shuya-left), station Bologoe(bologoe-good, kind, beautiful), Academician L.V. Shcherba(crack-crack, notch), city Gorodets(gorodets-gorodok, with the suffix -ets), city Mytishchi(mytishche-a place where myto was collected), village Scarlet(scarlet-red), cook Smury(gloomy-gloomy, cf. cloudy), etc.
Since the lexical system develops in each of the languages according to its own internal laws inherent only to it, obsolete or even ancient words that have completely left the Russian language can be preserved in other closely related Slavic languages as lexical units of an active vocabulary. Wed the words velmi– in Belarusian, fuska - in Polish (Russian luska lives as part of the production luska), Krak - in Bulgarian (cf. Russian production ham), ul - in Czech (in Russian it comes out as a root in the word beehive, street, etc.), bz - in Bulgarian (cf. Russian industrial elderberry), etc.
In addition to the fact that obsolete words are different in their degree of archaism, they differ from each other also in what led them to the composition of obsolete vocabulary (in the broad sense of the word). This difference is the most serious and fundamental.
Most of the words used in modern texts appeared in the Russian language in different eras - from the ancient to the new, but they seem to us to be equally modern, necessary, mastered by the language: eight, time, talk, farm, harvester, our, new, revolution, plane, soviet, phone and others. For example, in the late 19th - early 20th centuries, before the advent of the tram, there was a city Railway with horse traction. This road, as well as the wagon, was called such a road. konka. With the advent of the tram, and then other modes of transport, the need for horse traction disappeared, and the word konka obsolete, and therefore obsolete. Other words are forgotten if new words appear to name that object, sign, action. For example: in the Old Russian language there was a word knock- "fat". Over time, the word began to be used in this sense. fat, originally meaning "food, food", and the word knock ceased to be used, the subject remained, and the word became obsolete.
In addition to words, separate meanings of polysemantic words became obsolete. Yes, the word map has five meanings and two of them are obsolete: 1) "a sheet with a list of foods and drinks in a restaurant" (now this sheet is called "menu"; 2) "postcard".
So, words can go out of active use and go into passive vocabulary(and then disappear altogether) both because the phenomena, objects, things, etc. they call, disappear, and because they, as designations of any phenomena, objects, things, etc. in the process of use in the language can be replaced by other words. In one case, words become unnecessary in the active vocabulary of the speakers because they are designations of disappeared phenomena of reality, in the other case, words go out of active use because they are replaced by other words (with the same meanings), which turn out to be more acceptable for expression. relevant concepts. In the first case, we are dealing with historicisms, in the second - with archaisms.
Russian language
Archaisms and historicisms - what is the difference between them?
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Cultural, economic, social changes are taking place in the life of society: science is developing, technology is appearing, life is improving, political transformations are taking place.
This leads to the fact that words cease to be used, become obsolete, and are replaced by new words. Let's look at illustrative examples of what historicisms and archaisms are. Two layers of vocabulary coexist. The first is the words that native speakers know and use (active vocabulary).
The other layer is words that do not sound in speech, they are not known by the main part of language users, require additional explanations or understandable names that have ceased to function in speech - passive vocabulary.
Obsolete words belong to the passive vocabulary. They differ in the level of obsolescence, the reasons for which they became such.
The difference between historicisms and archaisms
Historicisms are not used in speech, there are no those objects, concepts that they called. Archaisms denote objects and phenomena that exist even now, but have been replaced by other phrases. The difference between the two groups is that archaisms have synonyms, this is important.
Examples: ramena (shoulders), tuga (sadness), blight (doom)
Historicisms have been in use for a very long time. Once popular under the Soviet regime, the words have already become forgotten - pioneer, communist, Soviet authority, politburo. Sometimes words go into the category of common vocabulary: lyceum, gymnasium, police, governor, department
It also happens that obsolete words are returned to speech in a new sense. For example, the word retinue in Ancient Russia meant "princely army". In vocabulary, its meaning is "a voluntary community of people formed for a specific purpose" - folk squad.
Historicism - how did it appear?
Society is developing at a rapid pace, and therefore changing cultural values, some things become obsolete, new ones appear. Fashion is moving forward and the previously popular caftan is now just an outdated word. Such clothes are not worn, and many obsolete names can be found in ancient books or historical films.
For modern man historicisms are part of history, they can be studied for development, but you do not need to use them in speech, others will not be able to understand their meaning. There will be misunderstandings.
To understand historicisms, consider examples and interpretations of words.
| Historicisms, examples | Word interpretation |
| barnkeeper | private owner of barns who buys grain or rents out barns |
| brushy | food, meals |
| business card | men's clothing, a kind of jacket with rounded floors diverging in front; originally intended for visits |
| hryvnia | neck silver or golden decoration in the form of a hoop |
| hound bear | a bear specially trained for palace "amusing games" |
| clerk | officer in command |
| stoker | court official in Muscovy |
| bad money | money for unserved term, which the soldier was obliged to return to the community in case of early termination of service |
| order | governing body of individual industries |
| cold shoemaker | in Russia until 1917 - a shoemaker who did not have a job, but repaired shoes right on the street near a client who took off his shoes from his foot |
Among the reasons for the formation of historicisms: the improvement of tools, the complication of production processes, the development of culture, and political transformations.
The abolition in Russia of the dependence of the peasant on the landowner left in the past the words: master, quitrent, corvée, tribute, serf. The main thing is that historicisms remain in the history of mankind and do not return to speech, therefore they do not matter. No one will now put on a caftan or there will be no corvée and serfdom.
Historicisms forever disappear from speech Historicisms can be divided into groups to understand the meaning of words:
- antique clothes and shoes salop, armyak, camisole, fizhma, shoe, bast shoes;
- names of social life phenomena - duel, Cominternist, laborer, collective farmer, fist, svokoshtny;
- craft and professions of people: skobar, buffoon, apprentice, water carrier, cooper;
- monetary units - polushka, imperial, five-kopeck piece;
- measures of weight and length - verst, vershok, span, pound, sazhen, pood;
- titles and positions lordship, doezzhachiy, nobility, mayor, hussar, batman;
- military items - mace, chain mail, axe, bludgeon, aventail, pishchal;
- names of administrative units - county, parish, province;
- letters of the ancient alphabet beeches, yat, lead.
Obsolete phrases can be found in scientific style to designate phenomena in an epochal period, to give expressiveness to heroes, images in an artistic style.
AT modern language cannot be found synonymous with historicism. What is remarkable is the fact that historicisms can be several centuries old.
Archaisms - what is it?
These are obsolete names of objects and concepts that have been replaced by other words that are familiar modern society. The world is changing, people are changing along with it, and the language is expanding with new concepts, and other words are being invented for the old ones.
Archaisms have taken on a new look, therefore they can be considered as synonyms modern words, but still their use in Russian will be strange than commonplace. For understanding ancient objects, for in-depth study of the culture of ancient people, archaisms and their meaning can play a role.
To understand, consider a table where the interpretation of old words is written. It is not necessary to know them, but for a historian it will be a godsend.
Archaisms are divided into groups. Sometimes not the whole word becomes obsolete, but only part of it. Let's take such meanings that are completely outdated: verses (verses). Some words have obsolete morphemes - prejudice.
The process of formation of archaisms is uneven. Thematic groups various archaisms:
- person's character - sower(chatterbox, empty talker), verbiager(scientist, expert) phrase-monger(flatterer), sueslovets(idle talk);
- profession - jump rope(gymnast), cattle breeder(cattle breeder), warehouseman(writer), skorosolnik(messenger, messenger);
- social relations - consonant(companion), friend(friend, partner) suvrazhnik(enemy);
- family relationships - sister(sister), relative, kindred(relative);
- objects surrounding reality —selina(a. dwelling, building; b. cleft), sennitsa(tent, tent);
- natural phenomena - arrow(lightning), students(cold, cold);
- things - saddle(chair, chair) server(napkin), shellfish(peel, peel, shell), screenshot(chest, casket) stop(stand);
- abstract concepts - literature(eloquence), thinking(inference) laughing(mockery), commonwealth(acquaintance, friendship).
Archaisms are rarely used in literature. If the writer is literate enough and speaks not only the modern, but also the ancient language, then such words will give the speech a special “zest”. The reader will ponder and delve into the reading, trying to understand and unravel what the author meant. It will always be interesting and informative.
In this function, archaisms appear in rhetorical art, judicial debate, and in fiction.
The word may lose one of its meanings Types of archaisms
Archaisms in literature and social activities people are divided into types. For a deeper understanding of the language, historical development. No novel based on historical events, cannot do without mentioning obsolete words.
1. Semantic archaisms
Words that previously had a different meaning, but in the modern language they have a new meaning. We understand the word "housing" as a kind of real estate where a person lives. But earlier the word had a different meaning: he feels so bad, like he was going to the fifth housing; (housing - floor).
2. Phonetic archaisms
They differ from modern ones in one or two letters, even the spelling can be similar, as if one letter was removed or added. It may even seem like a mistake, but it's just an obsolete expression.
For example: a poet - piit, fire - fire, dishonest - dishonored.
3. Word-building
Obsolescence occurs only in part of the word and usually in the suffix. It is easy to guess the meaning for understanding, but it is more common to recognize archaisms if you already know which letters have been replaced, removed or added.
- A rubber ball bounces off the floor (rubber - rubber).
- What a beautiful pencil drawing (pencil - pencil).
- The whole audience, competing with each other, shouted out different phrases (competing - competing).
- This nervous person is just terrible (nervous - nervous).
4. Phraseological
When we talk about this kind of archaism, we understand whole sayings, volatile expressions, a special ancient combination of words that was previously in use.
Among set expressions the following examples can be given: I will buy a farm; little wife coca with juice gloriously makes money; put it on who should.
5. Grammar
Such words remained in modern speech, but their gender has changed. Examples include tulle, coffee. Our coffee is masculine, but they want to make a middle one. The word tulle is masculine, but sometimes it is confused and they want to make it feminine.
Example words: swan - was before female, now has masculine. Previously, poets wrote that a lonely swan swims.
Importance of obsolete words
Outdated vocabulary is a valuable material for the formation of knowledge about the history of the people, introducing it to the national origins. These are the tangible threads that bind us to history. Its study allows you to restore information about the historical, social, economic activity ancestors, gain knowledge about the way of life of the people.
Obsolete words are a means that allows you to diversify speech, add emotionality to it, express the author's attitude to reality.
Obsolete words are words that are no longer used in standard speech. To determine if it applies certain word obsolete, apply lexicographic analysis. He should show that now this word is rarely used in speech.
One of the types of obsolete words are historicisms, that is, designations of concepts that no longer exist. Quite a lot of similar words among the designations of professions or social positions a person who has ceased to be relevant, for example, a one-palace, profos, a scavenger, a clerk, a postilion, a potter. A huge number of historicisms designate objects material culture, out of use - konka, torch, chaise, bast shoes. The meaning of some words belonging to this category is known to at least some native speakers who recognize them without effort, but there are no historicisms in the active dictionary.
Archaisms are words that point to concepts that continue to exist in the language, for which another word is now used. Instead of "so that" they say "so that", instead of "from the beginning" - "from ancient times, always", and instead of "eye" - "eye". Some of these words are completely unrecognizable by those who encounter them, and thus they are already dropped out of the passive vocabulary. For example, the word "in vain" is not recognized by many as a synonym for "in vain." At the same time, its root has been preserved in the words “vanity”, “vainly”, which are still included, at least, in the passive dictionary of the Russian language.
Some archaisms have remained in modern Russian speech as components of phraseological units. In particular, the expression "cherish as the apple of an eye" contains two archaisms at once, including "the pupil", which means "pupil". This word, as opposed to the word "eye", is unknown to the vast majority of native speakers, even educated ones.
Words go out of active use and fall into the passive vocabulary gradually. Among other things, the change in their status is due to changes in society. But the role of the direct linguistic factors. An important point is the number of connections of this word with the rest. A word with a rich set of systemic connections of a different nature will go noticeably more slowly into a passive dictionary.
Obsolete words do not have to be ancient. Relatively recent words can quickly fall into disuse. This applies to many terms that appeared in the early Soviet time. At the same time, both initially Russian words and borrowings, such as “battle” (battle), “victory” (meaning “victory”, but not woman's name), "fortecia" (victory).
Archaisms are divided into a number of categories depending on the nature of their obsolescence. The main option is archaisms proper-lexical, such words are completely outdated. For example, it is “like”, meaning “which” or “eye”, that is, the eye. Lexico-semantic archaism is a polysemantic word that is obsolete in one or more meanings. For example, the word "shame" still exists, but no longer means "spectacle." In lexico-phonetic archaisms, the spelling and pronunciation of the word has changed, but the meaning has been preserved. "Guishpan" (now Spanish) belongs to this category of archaisms. The lexical-derivational type of archaisms contains prefixes or suffixes that make this form obsolete. For example, previously there was a variant of the verb "fall", but now only "fall" is possible.
Obsolete words in modern writing and oral speech can be used for different purposes. In particular, when writing historical novels their presence is necessary for styling. In modern oral speech, their function may be to enhance the expressiveness of what is said. Archaisms are able to give statements both solemn, sublime, and ironic.
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Archaisms are words that, due to the emergence of new words, have fallen into disuse. But their synonyms are in modern Russian. For example:
right hand - right hand, cheeks - cheeks, ramen - shoulders, loins - lower back and so on.
But, it is worth noting that archaisms, nevertheless, may differ from modern synonymous words. These differences can be in the morphemic composition (fisherman - fisherman, friendship - friendship), in their lexical meaning(belly - life, guest - merchant,), in grammatical design (at the ball - at the ball, perform - perform) and phonetic features (mirror - mirror, Gishpan - Spanish). Many words are completely obsolete, but still they have modern synonyms. For example: destruction - death or harm, hope - hope and firmly believe in order - to. And to avoid possible errors in the interpretation of these words, when working with works of art it is strongly recommended to use a dictionary of obsolete words and dialectal expressions, or an explanatory dictionary.
Historicisms are words that denote such phenomena or objects that have completely disappeared or ceased to exist as a result of further development society.
Historicism became many words that denoted various items the life of our ancestors, phenomena and things that were somehow connected with the economy of the past, the old culture, the socio-political system that once existed. Many historicisms are found among words that are somehow related to military topics.
For example:
Redoubt, chain mail, visor, squeaker and so on.
Most of the obsolete words refer to garments and household items: prosak, svetets, endova, camisole, armyak.
Also, historicisms include words that denote ranks, professions, positions, estates that once existed in Russia: tsar, lackey, boyar, steward, stableman, barge hauler, tinker, and so on. Industrial activities such as Konka and manufactory. Phenomena patriarchal life: purchase, quitrent, corvee and others. Disappeared technologies such as honey brewing and tinning.
Words that arose in Soviet era. These include such words as: food detachment, NEP, Makhnovist, educational program, Budenovets and many others.
Sometimes it is very difficult to distinguish between archaisms and historicisms. It has to do with rebirth. cultural traditions Russia, and with the frequent use of these words in proverbs and sayings, as well as other works folk art. Such words include words denoting measures of length or measurements of weight, calling Christian and Religious holidays and others and others.
Abie - immediately, since, when.
Aby - so that, in order.
Lamb - lamb, lamb.
Az - the pronoun "I" or the name of the first letter of the alphabet.
Az, beeches, lead - the names of the first letters of the Slavic alphabet.
Aki - as, as, like, as if, as if.
Altyn is an old silver coin worth three kopecks.
Hungry - from the word "hungry" - greedily want.
An, even - if, meanwhile, after all.
Anbar (barn) - a building for storing bread or goods.
Araka - wheat vodka
Arapchik is a Dutch chervonets.
Argamak - oriental thoroughbred horse, horse: at the wedding - the horse is under saddle, not in harness
Armyak - men's outerwear made of cloth or woolen fabric.
Arshin - Russian measure of length, equal to 0.71 m; a ruler, a bar of this length for measurement.
More - if, if, when.
Grandmother - four sheaves of oats - ears up, covered with a fifth - ears down - from the rain.
Badog - batog, stick, staff, whip.
Bazheny - beloved, from the word "bazhat" - to love, desire, have a tendency.
Bazlanit - roar, scream.
Barber - barber, hairdresser.
Barda - thick, leftovers from the distillation of bread wine, used for fattening livestock.
Corvee - gratuitous forced labor of serfs who worked with their equipment on the farm of the landowner, the landowner. In addition, the corvée peasants paid the landowner various taxes in kind, supplying him with hay, oats, firewood, oil, poultry, etc. For this, the landowner allotted part of the land to the peasants and allowed it to be worked. week. The decree of Paul I (1797) on a three-day corvee was advisory in nature and in most cases was ignored by the landowners.
Basque - beautiful, elegant.
Basque - a short form of the word "basque" - beautiful, handsome, decorated.
Bastion - earth or stone fortification, forming a ledge on the ramparts.
Basurman is a hostile and unfriendly name for a Mohammedan, as well as in general for a non-Christian, a foreigner.
Batalha (battle) - battle, battle.
Bakhar is a talker, eloquent.
Bayat - to talk, chat, talk.
Watch - take care; be on guard, vigilant.
Fluency is speed.
Timelessness is trouble, ordeal, time.
Steelyard - hand scales with an unequal lever and a moving fulcrum.
Unusual - not familiar with customs, worldly rules, propriety.
Bela Mozhayskaya - an old Russian variety of bulk apples
Belmes (Tatar "belmes") - you do not understand anything, you do not understand at all.
Berdo - belonging to the weaving mill.
Take care - be careful.
Pregnancy - a burden, heaviness, burden; an armful, as much as you can hug with your hands.
Undoubtedly - unquestionably, unquestionably, unceasingly.
Shameless - shameless.
Becheva - strong rope, rope; tow line - the movement of a ship with a tow line, which was pulled along the shore by people or horses.
Bechet - gem ruby type
A tag is a stick or board on which signs, notes are placed with notches or paint.
Biryuk is a beast, a bear.
Broken loaves - whipped cream dough for rolls
Beat with a forehead - bow low; ask for something; to offer a gift, accompanying the offering with a request.
Bet - bet to win.
The Annunciation is a Christian holiday in honor of the Virgin (March 25, according to the old style).
Good - kind, good.
Bo - for, because.
Bobyl is a lonely, homeless, poor peasant.
Boden - a bodets, a spur on the legs of a rooster.
Bozhedom - a watchman at a cemetery, a gravedigger, a watchman, a warden of a nursing home, the disabled.
Blockhead - a statue, an idol, a chump.
Boris and Gleb are Christian saints whose day was celebrated on May 2 according to Art. Art.
Bortnik - a person engaged in forest beekeeping (from the word "bort" - a hollow tree in which bees nest).
Botalo - bell, bell tongue, beat.
Bochag is a deep puddle, pothole, pit, filled with water.
Brazhnik is a drunkard.
Brany - patterned (about fabric).
Bratina - a small bowl, a goblet with a spherical body, served for drinking around
Brother - brother, a vessel for beer.
Brasno - food, food, food, edible.
Bullshit, bullshit - a small seine net, which is used to fish together while fording.
Bude - if, if, when, if.
Buerak is a dry ravine.
Buza is rock salt given to animals.
A mace is a sign of commanding power, also a weapon (mace) or a knob.
Burachok - box, a small box made of birch bark.
Buchenye - from the word "to beat" - soak, whiten canvases.
Buyava, buyovo - cemetery, grave.
Bylitsa - a blade of grass, a stalk of grass.
Bylichka - a story about evil spirits, the authenticity of which is not in doubt.
Vadit - to attract, attract, accustom.
Important - hard, hard.
Shafts are waves.
Vandysh - smelt, dried fish like ruff
Vargan ("on the mound, on the harp") - perhaps from the "worg" - a clearing overgrown with tall grass; mowing, open space in the forest.
Varyukha, Barbara - a Christian saint, whose day was celebrated on December 4 according to Art. Art.
Wahmister is a senior non-commissioned officer in a cavalry squadron.
Vashchez is your grace.
Introduction - introduction, a Christian holiday in honor of the Virgin (November 21, according to the old style).
Suddenly - again, for the second time.
Vedrina - from the word "bucket" - clear, warm, dry weather (not winter).
Bucket - clear, calm weather.
Vezhezhnost - upbringing, courtesy, politeness.
Vekoshniki are pies filled with meat and fish leftovers.
Holy Thursday is the Thursday of the last week of Lent (before Easter).
Veres - juniper.
The cord is a coarse fabric made from hemp.
Vereya (rope, rope, rope) - a pillar on which the gate is hung; jamb at the door, gate.
Versten - verst.
A skewer is a rod on which meat is fried by turning it over the fire.
Nativity scene - a cave; hangout; a large box with puppets controlled from below through slots in the floor of the box, in which performances on the theme of the Nativity of Christ were played.
Versha - a fishing projectile made of rods.
Vershnik - riding; riding ahead.
Veselko - stirrer.
Vechka is a copper pan.
Evening - last night, yesterday.
Hanged (mushrooms, meat, etc.) - dried.
Viklina - tops.
Guilt is the reason.
Vitsa, vichka - twig, rod, whip.
Wet - exactly, actually.
The driver is the leader of the bear.
Voight is a foreman in a rural district, an elected headman.
Wave - wool.
Vologa - meat broth, any fatty liquid food.
Drag - from the word "drag", the path on the watershed, along which loads and boats are dragged.
Volosnik - a women's headdress, a net of gold or silver thread with embroidery (often not festive, like a kika, but everyday), a kind of cap.
Volotki - stems, straws, blades of grass; the upper part of the sheaf with ears.
Vorovina - shoe-making, also rope, lasso.
Voroguha, vorogusha - fortune-teller, fortune-teller, intruder.
Voronets - a beam in a hut that serves as a shelf.
Voronogray - divination by the cries of a raven; a book describing such signs.
Votchina - the family estate of the landowner, passing by inheritance.
Wow - in vain.
The enemy is the devil, demon.
A temporary worker is a person who has achieved power and a high position in the state due to personal proximity to the monarch.
A temporary worker is a person who has reached a high position due to chance.
Vskuyu - in vain, in vain, in vain.
Vsugon - after.
In vain - in vain, in vain.
Alien - from outside, not being in a close relationship.
Elected - elected by voting.
I take it out - always, at any time, incessantly.
Vyray (viry, iry) is a wondrous, promised, warm side, somewhere far away by the sea, accessible only to birds and snakes.
Howl - meal time, also a share of food, part of food.
Vyalitsa is a blizzard.
Greater - greater, higher.
Guy - oak forest, grove, small deciduous forest.
Galloon - gold or silver tinsel braid.
Garrison - military units located in a city or fortress.
Garchik - pot, krinka.
Gatki, gat - a flooring made of logs or brushwood in a marshy place. Nagat - lay a gutter.
Gashnik - belt, belt, lace for tying pants.
Guard - selected privileged troops; military units serving as guards under sovereigns or military leaders.
Gehenna is hell.
General - a military rank of the first, second, third or fourth classes according to the Table of Ranks.
Lieutenant General - a third-class general rank, under Catherine II, corresponding to the rank of lieutenant general according to Peter's Table of Ranks.
George - Christian Saint George the Victorious; Egory-Veshny (April 23) and Egoriev (Yuriev) day (November 26, O.S.) are holidays in his honor.
To perish - to perish, to perish.
Glazed - sewn from glazet (a kind of brocade with gold and silver patterns woven on it).
Glezno - lower leg, ankle.
Goveino - post (Mrs. goveino - Assumption post, etc.)
Fasting - fasting, abstaining from food.
Speaking is speech.
Gogol is a bird from the breed of diving ducks.
Godina - good clear weather, a bucket.
Fit - marvel, admire, stare; stare, stare; laugh, mock.
Years gody - years live, from the word "year" - to live.
Golbchik - golbets, a fence in the form of a closet in the hut between the stove and the floor, the stove with steps for climbing the stove and the floor, and with a hole in the underground.
Golden, golden - talking noisily, shouting, scolding.
Golik is a broom without leaves.
Golitsy - leather mittens without wool lining.
Dutchman - chervonets beaten at the St. Petersburg Mint.
Golomya is the open sea.
Gol - ragamuffins, golyaks, beggars.
Grief - up.
Gorka is a graveyard, a place where the ministers of the church lived.
Throat cap - sewn from very thin fur taken from the neck of an animal; in shape - a high straight hat with a crown that widens upwards.
Upper room - a room usually located in top floor at home.
The upper room is a clean half of the hut.
Fever, delirium tremens; fever - a serious illness with high fever and chills; delirium tremens - here: a state of morbid delirium with a high temperature or temporary insanity.
Guest is a guest.
Diploma - a letter; an official document, a decree giving someone the right to something.
Hryvnia - dime; in ancient Russia, the monetary unit is a silver or gold ingot weighing about a pound.
A grosh is an old coin worth two kopecks.
Grumant - old Russian name the Svalbard archipelago, discovered by our coast-dwellers in the 15th century.
Grun, gruna - a quiet horse trot.
Bed - a pole, a pole, suspended or attached lying down, a crossbar, a perch in a hut, from wall to wall.
Guba - bay, backwater.
A governor is the ruler of a province.
Spongy cheeses - curd mass, knocked down with sour cream.
Gudok - a three-stringed violin without notches on the sides of the body. Barn - a room, a shed for compressed bread; ground for threshing.
Gouge - a loop that fastens the shafts and the arc.
Guzhi with garlic - boiled kalachi.
Barn - a place for storing bread in sheaves and threshing, covered current.
Gunya, gunka - old, tattered clothes.
Yes, recently.
The housekeeper is the mistress of the inn.
Brother-in-law is the husband's brother.
Maiden - a room in the landowners' houses, where serf yard girls lived and worked.
Nine - a period of nine days.
Dezha - dough for dough, sourdough; tub in which bread dough is kneaded.
The actors are actors.
Del - division.
Delenka is a woman, constantly busy, needlework.
Dennitsa - morning dawn.
Denga - an old coin worth two pennies or half a penny; money, capital, wealth.
Desnaya, right hand - right, right hand.
Ten to ten times.
Wild - wild.
An officer's diploma is a diploma for an officer's rank.
Dmitriev Saturday is the day of commemoration of the dead (between October 18 and 26), established by Dmitry Donskoy in 1380 after the Battle of Kulikovo.
Dna - diseases of internal organs, aching bones, hernia.
Today - now, now, today.
Dobrokhot - well-wisher, patron.
Suffices - should, should, should, decently.
Sufficient - to be sufficient.
An argument is a denunciation, a denunciation, a complaint.
Satisfy, satisfy - as much as you want, as much as you need, enough.
Dokuka is an annoying request, also a boring, boring business.
Top up - overcome.
Dolon - palm.
Share - plot, share, allotment, lot; fate, fate, fate.
Domovina is a coffin.
Until then until.
The bottom is a plate on which the spinner sits and into which the comb and tow are inserted.
To correct - to demand a file, a debt.
Dor is a rough shingle.
The roads are a very thin oriental silk fabric.
Dosyulny - old, former.
Dokha - a fur coat with fur inside and out.
Dragoon - a warrior of cavalry units, operating both on horseback and on foot.
Dranitsy - thin boards chipped from a tree.
Grass - coarse sand, which is used when washing unpainted floors, walls, shops.
Drolya - dear, dear, beloved.
Druzhka is the wedding manager invited by the groom.
Dubets - a young oak, an oak, a shelf, a staff, a rod, a twig.
Dubnik - oak bark, necessary for various chores, including for tanning leather.
Smoky furs - bags sewn from steamed skins (and therefore especially soft).
Smoke - groin.
Drawbar - a single shaft, reinforced to the front axle to turn the wagon, with a pair of harnesses.
The deacikha is the wife of a deacon.
Uncle - a servant assigned to supervise a boy in noble families.
Evdokei - Christian St. Evdokia, whose day was celebrated on March 1 according to Art. Art.
When - when.
A single child is the only son of his parents.
Go - food.
Hedgehog - which.
Daily - daily, everyday.
Oil - olive oil, which was used in the church service.
Elen is a deer.
Eliko - how much.
Christmas tree - spruce branch on the roof or above the door of the hut - a sign that there is a tavern in it.
Eloza is a fidget, a sneak, a flatterer.
Eltsy - different kind curly cookies.
Endova - a wide vessel with a sock for pouring liquids.
Epancha - an old long and wide cloak, coverlet.
Jeremiah - the Christian prophet Jeremiah, whose day was celebrated on May 1; Christian apostle Erma, whose day was celebrated on May 31.
Ernishny - from "yernik": small, undersized forest, small birch shrub.
Erofeich - bitter wine; vodka infused with herbs.
Growling on the belly - from the word "roar" - swear, swear.
Estva - food, food.
Essence is food.
Essence is nature.
Yetchi - yes.
Zhalnik - cemetery, graves, churchyard.
Iron - fetters, chains, shackles.
Affection - lack of simplicity and naturalness; mannerisms.
Foal - lot.
Lives happens.
Belly - life, property; soul; cattle.
Belly - livestock, prosperity, wealth.
Live - are.
Dwelling - living place, premises.
Fat - good, property; good, happy life.
Zhitnik - rye or barley baked bread.
Zhito - any bread in grain or on the vine; barley (northern), unground rye (southern), any spring bread (eastern).
Harvest - harvesting, harvesting; streak after squeezed bread.
Zupan - an old semi-caftan.
Grumpy - Grumpy.
Zhalvey, zhelv, zhol - an abscess, a tumor on the body.
Continuation
Introduction
The vocabulary of the Russian language is constantly changing: some words that used to be used very often are now almost inaudible, while others, on the contrary, are used more and more often. Such processes in the language are associated with a change in the life of the society that it serves: with the advent of a new concept, a new word appears; if society no longer refers to a certain concept, then it does not refer to the word that this concept stands for.
As mentioned above, changes in the lexical composition of the language occur constantly: some words become obsolete and leave the language, others appear - are borrowed or formed according to existing models. Those words that have gone out of active use are called obsolete; new words that have just appeared in the language are called neologisms.
Historiography. There are many books on this topic, here are just a few of them: "Modern Russian: Lexicology" by M.I. Fomina, Golub I.B. "Stylistics of the Russian language", electronic sources were also used to provide more complete information.
The purpose of the work is to study the use of both obsolete words and neologisms in various styles of speech. The objectives of this work are to study obsolete vocabulary and new words that have various areas usage and what place they occupy in various styles of speech.
Based on the goals and objectives set, the structure of the work consists of an introduction (in which the goals, objectives, historiography and structure of the work are indicated), three chapters (which show the stylistic division, the reasons for the appearance and signs of obsolete words and neologisms, obsolete vocabulary and new words , the so-called neologisms, in various styles of speech), as well as a conclusion (which summarizes the work done).
obsolete words
Words that are no longer used or are used very rarely are called obsolete (for example, child, right hand, mouth, Red Army soldier, people's commissar)
From a stylistic point of view, all words of the Russian language are divided into two large groups:
stylistically neutral or common (can be used in all styles of speech without restriction);
stylistically colored (they belong to one of the styles of speech: bookish: scientific, official business, journalistic - or colloquial; their use “not in their style” violates the correctness, purity of speech; you need to be extremely careful in their use); for example, the word "hindrance" belongs to the colloquial style, while the word "exorcise" belongs to the book style.
Also, depending on the nature of the functioning, there are:
common vocabulary (used without any restrictions),
limited vocabulary.
Common vocabulary includes words used (understood and used) in different language areas native speakers, regardless of their place of residence, profession, lifestyle: these are most nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs (blue, fire, grumble, good), numerals, pronouns, most service words.
The vocabulary of limited use includes words whose use is limited to some locality (Dialectisms (from the Greek diblektos "dialect, dialect") are elements of Russian dialects (dialects), phonetic, grammatical, word-formation, lexical features that occur in the stream of normalized Russian literary speech.), profession (Special vocabulary associated with professional activity of people. It includes terms and professionalisms.), Occupation or interests (Jargonisms are words used by people of certain interests, occupations, habits. For example, there are jargons of schoolchildren, students, soldiers, athletes, criminals, hippies, etc.) .
Word obsolescence is a process, and different words may be at different stages. Those that have not yet gone out of active use, but are already used less frequently than before, are called obsolete (voucher).
Outdated vocabulary, in turn, is divided into historicisms and archaisms.
Historicisms are words denoting those who have disappeared from modern life objects, phenomena that have become irrelevant concepts, for example: chain mail, corvée, horse racing; modern Saturday, Sunday; socialist competition, the Politburo. These words have fallen out of use along with the objects and concepts they designate and have passed into passive vocabulary: we know them, but do not use them in our everyday speech. Historicisms are used in texts in which we are talking about the past ( fiction, historical research).
Historicisms are used in articles on historical themes to indicate realities, in articles on hot topics- to draw historical parallels, as well as in connection with the actualization of concepts and words in modern speech.
In addition to historicisms, other types of obsolete words are distinguished in our language. We use certain words less and less in speech, replacing them with others, and so they are gradually forgotten. For example, an actor was once called a lyceum, a comedian; they said not a journey, but a voyage, not fingers, but fingers, not a forehead, but a brow. Such obsolete words are called completely modern objects, concepts that are now commonly called differently. New names have replaced the old ones, and they are gradually being forgotten. Obsolete words that have modern synonyms that have replaced them in the language are called archaisms.
Archaisms are fundamentally different from historicisms. If historicisms are the names of obsolete objects, then archaisms are obsolete names of quite ordinary objects and concepts that we constantly encounter in life.
There are several types of archaisms:
1) the word may become obsolete and completely out of use: cheeks - "cheeks", neck - "neck", right hand - "right hand", shuytsa - " left hand", so that -" so that "destruction -" death ";
2) one of the meanings of the word may become obsolete, while the rest continue to be used in modern language: belly - "life", thief - " state criminal"(False Dmitry II was called "Tushinsky thief"); the word give over the past 10 years has lost the meaning of "sell", and the word throw away - the meaning of "put on sale";
3) 1-2 sounds and / or place of stress can change in a word: number - number, library - library, mirror - mirror, string - lace;
4) an obsolete word may differ from modern ones by a prefix and / or a suffix (friendship - friendship, restaurant - restaurant, fisherman - fisherman);
5) the word may change individual grammatical forms (cf.: the title of A. S. Pushkin's poem "Gypsies" - modern form gypsies) or the belonging of this word to a certain grammatical class (the words piano, hall were used as feminine nouns, and in modern Russian these are masculine words).
As can be seen from the examples, obsolete words differ from each other in terms of the degree of archaism: some are still found in speech, especially among poets, others are known only from the works of writers of the last century, and there are those that are completely forgotten.
Archaization of one of the meanings of the word is very interesting phenomenon. The result of this process is the emergence of semantic, or semantic, archaisms, that is, words used in an unusual way for us, obsolete value. Knowledge of semantic archaisms helps to correctly understand the language of classical writers. And sometimes their word usage cannot but make us think seriously...
Archaisms should not be neglected either. There are cases when they return to the language, re-integrate into the composition of the active vocabulary. So it was, for example, with the words soldier, officer, ensign, minister, adviser, which received a new life in modern Russian. In the first years of the revolution, they managed to become archaic, but then they returned, having acquired a new meaning.
Archaisms, like historicisms, are necessary for word artists to create the color of antiquity when depicting antiquity.
Decembrist poets, contemporaries and friends of A.S. Pushkin, used Old Slavonic vocabulary to create a civil-patriotic pathos of speech. Great interest in obsolete words was hallmark their poetry. The Decembrists were able to single out the layer in the archaic vocabulary that could be adapted to express freedom-loving ideas. High outdated vocabulary can be subjected to ironic rethinking and act as a means of humor and satire. The comic sound of obsolete words is noted even in the everyday story and satire of the 17th century, and later in epigrams, jokes, parodies, which were written by participants in the linguistic controversy early XIX in. (members of the "Arzamas" society), who opposed the archaization of the Russian literary language.
In modern humorous and satirical poetry, obsolete words are also often used as a means of creating an ironic coloring of speech.