Recently I was preparing an essay on anthropology on the topic "The Mentality of India". The creation process was very exciting, because the country itself impresses with its traditions and characteristics. For those who are interested, please read.

I was especially struck by: the fate of women in India, the phrase that "Husband is an earthly God", the very difficult life of the untouchables (the last estate in India), and the happy existence of cows and bulls.

Contents of the first part:
1. General information
2. Castes

1 . General information about India

INDIA, Republic of India (in Hindi - Bharat), a state in South Asia.
Capital - Delhi
Area - 3,287,590 km2.
Ethnic composition. 72% Indo-Aryans, 25% Dravidians, 3% Mongoloids.

The official name of the country , India, comes from the ancient Persian word Hindu, which in turn comes from the Sanskrit Sindhu (Skt. सिन्धु), the historical name of the Indus River. The ancient Greeks called the Indians the Indoi (ancient Greek Ἰνδοί) - "the people of the Indus". The Constitution of India also recognizes a second name, Bharat (Hindi भारत), which comes from the Sanskrit name of an ancient Indian king whose history was described in the Mahabharata. The third name, Hindustan, has been used since the time of the Mughal Empire, but has no official status.

Territory of India in the north it extends in the latitudinal direction for 2930 km, in the meridional direction - for 3220 km. India is washed by the waters of the Arabian Sea in the west, the Indian Ocean in the south and the Bay of Bengal in the east. Its neighbors are Pakistan in the northwest, China, Nepal and Bhutan in the north, Bangladesh and Myanmar in the east. In addition, India has maritime borders with the Maldives in the southwest, with Sri Lanka in the south and with Indonesia in the southeast. The disputed territory of the state of Jammu and Kashmir shares a border with Afghanistan.

India ranks seventh in the world in terms of area, second largest population (after China) , currently lives in it 1.2 billion people. India has had one of the highest population densities in the world for thousands of years.

Religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism originated in India. In the first millennium AD, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam also came to the Indian subcontinent, which had a great influence on the formation of the diverse culture of the region.

More than 900 million Indians (80.5% of the population) practice Hinduism. Other religions with a significant following are Islam (13.4%), Christianity (2.3%), Sikhism (1.9%), Buddhism (0.8%) and Jainism (0.4%). Religions such as Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Bahai and others are also represented in India. Among the aboriginal population, which is 8.1%, animism is common.

Almost 70% of Indians live in rural areas, although in recent decades migration to big cities has led to a sharp increase in the urban population. The largest cities in India are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, Kolkata (formerly Kolkata), Chennai (formerly Madras), Bangalore, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad. In terms of cultural, linguistic and genetic diversity, India ranks second in the world after the African continent. The gender composition of the population is characterized by the excess of the number of men over the number of women. The male population is 51.5%, and the female population is 48.5%. There are 929 women for every thousand men, a ratio that has been observed since the beginning of this century.

India is home to the Indo-Aryan language group (74% of the population) and the Dravidian language family (24% of the population). Other languages spoken in India are descended from the Austroasiatic and Tibeto-Burmese linguistic family. Hindi, the most spoken language in India, is the official language of the Government of India. English, which is widely used in business and administration, has the status of an "auxiliary official language", it also plays a large role in education, especially in secondary and higher education. The Constitution of India defines 21 official languages that are spoken by a significant part of the population or that have classical status. There are 1652 dialects in India.

Climate humid and warm, mostly tropical, tropical monsoon in the north. India, located in tropical and subequatorial latitudes, fenced off by the wall of the Himalayas from the influence of continental Arctic air masses, is one of the hottest countries in the world with a typical monsoonal climate. The monsoonal rhythm of rainfall determines the rhythm of household work and the whole way of life. 70-80% of the annual precipitation falls during the four months of the rainy season (June-September), when the southwest monsoon arrives and it rains almost incessantly. This is the time of the main field season "kharif". October-November is the post-monsoon period when the rains mostly stop. The winter season (December-February) is dry and cool, when roses and many other flowers bloom, many trees bloom - this is the most pleasant time to visit India. March-May is the hottest, driest season, with temperatures often exceeding 35°C, often rising above 40°C. This is a time of sweltering heat, when the grass burns out, leaves fall off the trees, air conditioners run at full capacity in rich houses.

national animal - tiger.

national bird - peacock.

national flower - lotus.

national fruit - mango.

The national currency is the Indian rupee.

India can be called the cradle of human civilization. The Indians were the first in the world to learn how to grow rice, cotton, sugar cane, and they were the first to breed poultry. India gave the world chess and the decimal system.
The average literacy rate in the country is 52%, with 64% for men and 39% for women.

2. Castes in India

CASTS - division of Hindu society in the Indian subcontinent.

Caste for many centuries was determined primarily by the profession. The profession, which passed from father to son, often did not change over the course of dozens of generations.

Each caste lives according to its own dharma - with that set of traditional religious prescriptions and prohibitions, the creation of which is attributed to the gods, divine revelation. Dharma determines the norms of behavior for members of each caste, regulates their actions and even feelings. Dharma is that elusive, but immutable, which is pointed out to the child already in the days of his first babbling. Everyone should act in accordance with their own dharma, deviation from dharma is lawlessness - this is how children are taught at home and at school, this is how the brahmin, the mentor and spiritual leader, repeats. And a person grows up in the consciousness of the absolute inviolability of the laws of dharma, their immutability.

At present, the caste system is officially banned, and the strict division of crafts or professions depending on the caste is gradually being phased out, while at the same time a state policy is being pursued to reward those who have been oppressed for centuries at the expense of representatives of other castes. It is widely believed that castes are losing their former importance in the modern Indian state. However, developments have shown that this is far from the case.

In fact, the caste system itself has not gone away: when a student enters a school, they ask his religion, and if he professes Hinduism, the caste, in order to know if there is a place for representatives of this caste in this school in accordance with state standards. When entering a college or university, caste is important in order to correctly assess the threshold scores (the lower the caste, the lower the score is enough for a passing score). When applying for a job, caste is again important in order to maintain a balance. Although castes are not forgotten when they arrange the future of their children, weekly supplements with marriage announcements are released to the major Indian newspapers, in which the columns are divided into religions, and the most voluminous column is with representatives of Hinduism - on castes. Often, under such ads, describing the parameters of both the groom (or bride) and the requirements for prospective applicants (or applicants), the standard phrase "Cast no bar" is placed, which means "Caste does not matter" in translation, but, to be honest, I have a little doubt that a bride from the Brahmin caste will be seriously considered by her parents for a groom from a caste below the Kshatriyas. Yes, inter-caste marriages are also not always approved, but they happen if, for example, the groom occupies a higher position in society than the bride's parents (but this is not a mandatory requirement - cases are different). In such marriages, the caste of children is determined by the father. So, if a girl from a Brahmin family marries a Kshatriya boy, then their children will belong to the Kshatriya caste. If a Kshatriya boy marries a Veishya girl, then their children will also be considered Kshatriyas.

The official tendency to downplay the importance of the caste system has led to the fact that the corresponding column has disappeared from the once a decade censuses of the population. The last time information about the number of castes was published in 1931 (3000 castes). But this figure does not necessarily include all local podcasts that function as social groups in their own right. In 2011, India plans to conduct a general census, which will take into account the caste of the inhabitants of this country.

The main characteristics of the Indian caste:
. endogamy (marriages exclusively between members of a caste);
. hereditary membership (accompanied by the practical impossibility of moving to another caste);
. the prohibition to share a meal with representatives of other castes, as well as to have physical contact with them;
. recognition of a firmly fixed place for each caste in the hierarchical structure of society as a whole;
. restrictions on choosing a profession;

The Indians believe that Manu is the first person from whom we all descended. Once upon a time, the god Vishnu saved him from the Flood that destroyed the rest of humanity, after which Manu came up with the rules that people should now be guided by. Hindus believe that it was 30 thousand years ago (historians stubbornly date the laws of Manu to the 1st-2nd century BC and generally claim that this collection of instructions is a compilation of the works of various authors). Like most other religious prescriptions, the laws of Manu are distinguished by exceptional meticulousness and attention to the most insignificant details of human life - from swaddling babies to cooking recipes. But there are also much more fundamental things. It is according to the laws of Manu that all Indians are divided into four estates - varnas.

Very often they confuse varnas, of which there are only four, with castes, of which there are a great many. A caste is a rather small community of people united by profession, nationality and place of residence. And varnas are more like such categories as workers, entrepreneurs, employees and intellectuals.

There are four main varnas: Brahmins (officials), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants) and Shudras (peasants, workers, servants). The rest are "untouchables".

The Brahmins are the highest caste in India.

Brahmins emerged from the mouth of Brahma. The meaning of the life of the Brahmins is moksha, or liberation.
These are scientists, ascetics, priests. (teachers and priests)
Today Brahmins most often work as officials.
The most famous is Jawaharlal Nehru.

In a typical rural area, the highest stratum of the caste hierarchy is formed by members of one or more Brahmin castes, constituting from 5 to 10% of the population. Among these Brahmins there are a number of landowners, a few village clerks and accountants or accountants, a small group of clergy who perform ritual functions in local shrines and temples. Members of each Brahmin caste marry only within their circle, although it is possible to marry a bride from a family belonging to a similar sub-caste from a neighboring area. Brahmins are not supposed to plow or do certain types of manual work; women from their midst can serve in the house, and landowners can cultivate allotments, but only not plow. Brahmins are also allowed to work as cooks or domestic servants.

A Brahman is not entitled to eat food prepared outside his caste, but members of all other castes may eat from the hands of Brahmins. In choosing food, a Brahmin observes many prohibitions. Members of the Vaishnava caste (who worship the god Vishnu) have been vegetarian since the 4th century, when it became widespread; some other castes of Shiva-worshipping Brahmins (Shaiva Brahmins) do not abstain from meat in principle, but abstain from the meat of animals included in the diet of the lower castes.

Brahmins serve as spiritual guides in the families of most high or middle status castes, with the exception of those considered "impure". Brahmin priests, as well as members of a number of religious orders, are often recognized by "caste signs" - patterns painted on the forehead with white, yellow or red paint. But such marks only indicate belonging to the main sect and characterize this person as worshiping, for example, Vishnu or Shiva, and not as a subject of a certain caste or sub-caste.
Brahmins, to a greater extent than others, adhere to the occupations and professions that were provided for by their varna. For many centuries, scribes, scribes, clergymen, scientists, teachers and officials came out of their midst. Back in the first half of the 20th century. in some areas, brahmins occupied up to 75% of all more or less important government positions.

In dealing with the rest of the population, the Brahmins do not allow reciprocity; thus, they accept money or gifts from members of other castes, but they themselves never make gifts of a ritual or ceremonial nature. Among the Brahmin castes there is no complete equality, but even the lowest of them stands above the rest of the highest castes.

The mission of a member of the Brahmin caste is to learn, teach, receive gifts and give gifts. By the way, all Indian programmers are Brahmins.

Kshatriyas

Warriors who came out of the hands of Brahma.
These are warriors, rulers, kings, nobles, rajas, maharajas.
The most famous is Buddha Shakyamuni
For a kshatriya, the main thing is dharma, the fulfillment of duty.

Following the Brahmins, the most prominent hierarchical place is occupied by the Kshatriya castes. In rural areas they include, for example, landlords, possibly associated with former ruling houses (eg Rajput princes in Northern India). Traditional occupations in such castes are the work of managers on estates and service in various administrative positions and in the army, but now these castes no longer enjoy their former power and authority. In ritual terms, kshatriyas are right behind the brahmins and also observe strict caste endogamy, although they allow marriage with a girl from a lower podcast (a union called hypergamy), but in no case can a woman marry a man of a podcast below her own. Most kshatriyas eat meat; they have the right to take food from the Brahmins, but not from representatives of any other castes.

Vaishya

Arising from the thighs of Brahma.
These are artisans, merchants, farmers, entrepreneurs (strata that are engaged in trade).
The Gandhi family is from the Vaishyas, and at one time the fact that it was born with the Nehru Brahmins caused a huge scandal.
The main life stimulus is artha, or the desire for wealth, for property, for hoarding.

The third category includes merchants, shopkeepers and moneylenders. These castes recognize the superiority of the Brahmins, but do not necessarily show such an attitude towards the Kshatriya castes; as a rule, vaishyas are more strict about the rules regarding food, and are even more careful to avoid ritual pollution. The traditional occupation of the Vaishyas is trade and banking, they tend to stay away from physical labor, but sometimes they are included in the management of the farms of landlords and village entrepreneurs, not directly participating in the cultivation of the land.

Shudra

Came out from the feet of Brahma.
Peasant caste. (Labors, servants, artisans, workers)
The main aspiration at the sudra stage is kama. These are pleasures, pleasant experiences delivered by the senses.
Mithun Chakraborty from Disco Dancer is a Sudra.

They, due to their numbers and ownership of a significant part of the local land, play an important role in solving the social and political issues of some areas. Shudras eat meat, marriage of widows and divorced women is allowed. The lower sudras are numerous podcasts whose profession is of a highly specialized nature. These are the castes of potters, blacksmiths, carpenters, joiners, weavers, buttermakers, distillers, masons, hairdressers, musicians, tanners (those who sew products from finished - dressed leather), butchers, scavengers and many others. The members of these castes are supposed to practice their hereditary profession or craft; however, if the sudra is able to acquire land, any of them can take up agriculture. Members of many artisan and other professional castes have a traditional relationship with the higher castes, which consists in the provision of services for which no monetary allowance is paid, but an annual remuneration in kind. This payment is made by each household in the village, whose requests are satisfied by this representative of the professional caste. For example, a blacksmith has his own circle of clients, for whom he manufactures and repairs inventory and other metal products all year round, for which he, in turn, is given a certain amount of grain.

Untouchables

Engaged in the dirtiest work, often beggars or very poor people.
They are outside of Hindu society.

Activities such as tanning or slaughtering animals are seen as clearly defiling, and while these jobs are very important to the community, those who do them are considered untouchables. They are engaged in cleaning dead animals from the streets and fields, toilets, dressing skins, cleaning sewers. They work as scavengers, tanners, flayers, potters, prostitutes, laundresses, shoemakers, and are hired for the most difficult work in mines, construction sites, etc. That is, everyone who comes into contact with one of the three dirty things indicated in the laws of Manu - sewage, corpses and clay - or leads a wandering life on the street.

In many ways they are outside Hindu society, they were called "outcasts", "low", "registered" castes, and Gandhi proposed the euphemism "harijana" ("children of God"), which became widely used. But they themselves prefer to call themselves "dalits" - "broken". Members of these castes are prohibited from using public wells and pumps. You can not walk on the sidewalks, so as not to inadvertently come into contact with a representative of the highest caste, because they will have to be cleansed after such contact in the temple. In some areas of cities and villages, they are generally forbidden to appear. Under the ban for Dalits and visiting temples, only a few times a year they are allowed to cross the threshold of sanctuaries, after which the temple is subjected to a thorough ritual purification. If a Dalit wants to buy something in a store, he must put money at the entrance and shout from the street what he needs - the purchase will be taken out and left on the doorstep. Dalit is forbidden to start a conversation with a representative of a higher caste, to call him on the phone.

After laws were passed in some states of India to penalize canteen owners for refusing to feed Dalits, most catering establishments set up special cupboards with utensils for them. True, if the dining room does not have a separate room for Dalits, they have to dine outside.

Until recently, most Hindu temples were closed to the untouchables, there was even a ban on approaching people from higher castes closer than the set number of steps. The nature of the caste barriers is such that it is believed that the Harijans continue to defile members of the "pure" castes, even if they have long abandoned their caste occupation and are engaged in ritually neutral activities, such as agriculture. Although in other social settings and situations, such as being in an industrial city or on a train, an untouchable may have physical contact with members of higher castes and not defile them, in his native village, untouchability is inseparable from him, no matter what he does.

When Ramita Navai, a British journalist of Indian origin, decided to make a revolutionary film that would reveal to the world the terrible truth about the life of the untouchables (Dalits), she endured a lot. Courageously looked at the Dalit teenagers, frying and eating rats. Little children splashing in the gutter and playing with the parts of a dead dog. To a housewife carving their rotten carcass of a pig into neater pieces. But when the well-groomed journalist was taken with her to the work shift by the ladies from the caste, which traditionally cleans toilets by hand, the poor thing vomited right in front of the camera. “Why do these people live like this?! - the journalist asked us in the last seconds of the documentary "Dalit means broken". Yes, because the child of the Brahmins spent the morning and evening hours in prayer, and the son of a kshatriya at the age of three was put on a horse and taught to swing a saber. For a Dalit, the ability to live in the mud is his prowess, his skill. The Dalits know better than anyone: those who are afraid of dirt will die faster than others.

There are hundreds of untouchable castes.
Every fifth Indian is Dalit - this is at least 200 million people.

Hindus believe in reincarnation and believe that the one who observes the rules of his caste will rise to a higher caste by birth in a future life, while the one who violates these rules will not understand who he will become in his next life.

The first three high estates of the Varnas were ordered to undergo an initiation ceremony, after which they were called twice-born. Members of the high castes, especially the Brahmins, then put on the “sacred thread” over their shoulders. The twice-born are allowed to study the Vedas, but only Brahmans could preach them. The Shudras were strictly forbidden not only to study, but even to listen to the words of the Vedic teachings.

Clothing, despite all its seeming uniformity, is different for different castes and noticeably distinguishes a member of a high caste from a member of a low one. Some wrap the thighs with a wide strip of cloth that falls to the ankles, while others should not cover the knees, women of some castes should drape their body in a strip of cloth of at least seven or nine meters, while women of others should not use fabric longer than four or five on a sari. meters, some were ordered to wear a certain type of jewelry, others were forbidden, some could use an umbrella, others had no right to do so, etc. etc. The type of dwelling, food, even vessels for its preparation - everything is determined, everything is prescribed, everything is studied from childhood by a member of each caste.

That is why in India it is very difficult to pass oneself off as a member of some other caste - such an imposture will be immediately exposed. Only he can do this who has studied the dharma of a foreign caste for many years and has had the opportunity to practice it. And even then he can only succeed so far from his locality, where they know nothing about his village or city. And that is why the most terrible punishment has always been exclusion from the caste, the loss of one's social face, the severance of all industrial ties.

Even the untouchables, who from century to century did the dirtiest work, brutally suppressed and exploited by members of the higher castes, those untouchables who were humiliated and disdained as something unclean, they were still considered members of the caste society. They had their own dharma, they could be proud of their adherence to its rules and maintained their long-established industrial relations. They had their own well-defined caste face and their own well-defined place, albeit in the lowest layers of this multi-layered hive.

Bibliography:
1. Guseva N.R. - India in the mirror of centuries. Moscow, VECHE, 2002
2. Snesarev A.E. - Ethnographic India. Moscow, Nauka, 1981
3. Material from Wikipedia - India:
http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F
4. Online Encyclopedia Around the World - India:
http://www.krugosvet.ru/enc/strany_mira/INDIYA.html
5. Marry an Indian: life, traditions, features:
http://tomarryindian.blogspot.com/
6. Interesting articles about tourism. India. Women of India.
http://turistua.com/article/258.htm
7. Material from Wikipedia - Hinduism:
http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC
8. Bharatiya.ru - pilgrimage and travel through India, Pakistan, Nepal and Tibet.
http://www.bharatiya.ru/index.html

The content of the article

CASTES, a term applied primarily to the main division of Hindu society in the Indian subcontinent. It is also used to refer to any social group that adheres to strict norms of group behavior and does not allow outsiders into its ranks. The main characteristics of the Indian caste: endogamy (marriages exclusively between members of the caste); hereditary membership (accompanied by the practical impossibility of moving to another caste); the prohibition to share a meal with representatives of other castes, as well as to have physical contact with them; recognition of a firmly fixed place for each caste in the hierarchical structure of society as a whole; restrictions on choosing a profession; autonomy of castes in the regulation of intra-caste social relations.

STORY

The origin of the varnas

From the earliest works of Sanskrit literature, it is known that the Aryan-speaking peoples during the period of the initial settlement of India (approximately from 1500 to 1200 BC) were already divided into four main classes, later called "varnas" (Skt. "color") : brahmins (priests), kshatriyas (warriors), vaishyas (traders, cattle breeders and farmers) and shudras (servants and laborers).

Hindus believe in reincarnation and believe that those who follow the rules of their caste will rise to a higher caste by birth in a future life, while those who violate these rules will lose their social status. see also METEMPSICHOSE.

Cast stability.

Throughout Indian history, the caste structure has shown remarkable stability before change. Even the rise of Buddhism and its adoption as the state religion by Emperor Ashoka (269-232 BC) did not affect the system of hereditary groups. Unlike Hinduism, Buddhism as a doctrine does not support caste division, but at the same time it does not insist on the complete elimination of caste distinctions.

Castes in modern India.

Indian castes are literally innumerable. Since each denominated caste is divided into many sub-castes, it is impossible to even roughly calculate the number of social units that have the minimum necessary features of jati. The official tendency to downplay the importance of the caste system has led to the fact that the corresponding column has disappeared from the once a decade censuses of the population. The last time information about the number of castes was published in 1931 (3000 castes). But this figure does not necessarily include all local podcasts that function as social groups in their own right.

It is widely believed that castes have lost their former importance in the modern Indian state. However, developments have shown that this is far from the case. The position taken by the INC and the Government of India after the death of Gandhi is controversial. Moreover, universal suffrage and the need of politicians for the support of the electorate have given new importance to the corporate spirit and the internal cohesion of the castes. As a result, caste interests became an important factor during election campaigns.

NATURE CAST

As the organizing basis of society, caste is characteristic of all Hindu India, but there are very few castes that are found everywhere. Each geographical area has developed its own, separate and independent ladder of strictly ranked castes, for many of them there is no equivalent in neighboring territories. The exception to this regional rule is a number of castes of Brahmins, who are represented in vast areas and everywhere occupy the highest position in the caste system.

Brahmins.

Brahmins, to a greater extent than others, adhere to the occupations and professions that were provided for by their varna. For many centuries, scribes, scribes, clergymen, scientists, teachers and officials came out of their midst. Back in the first half of the 20th century. in some areas, brahmins occupied up to 75% of all more or less important government positions.

Kshatriyas.

Vaishya.

The third category of "twice-born" castes includes merchants, shopkeepers, and usurers. These castes recognize the superiority of the Brahmins, but do not necessarily show such an attitude towards the Kshatriya castes; as a rule, vaishyas are more strict about the rules regarding food, and are even more careful to avoid ritual pollution. The traditional occupation of the Vaishyas is trade and banking, they tend to stay away from physical labor, but sometimes they are included in the management of the farms of landlords and village entrepreneurs, not directly participating in the cultivation of the land.

"Pure" Shudras.

Members of the above "twice-born" castes constitute only a minority of the inhabitants of any rural area, while the majority of the agrarian population consists of one or more castes, called the "pure" castes of the Shudras. Although such castes are included in the fourth varna, this does not mean that they occupy the lowest rung in the social hierarchy: there are many areas where the peasant caste, due to its size and ownership of a significant part of the local land, plays a crucial role in solving social and political issues. . In ancient times, the Sudra peasant castes recognized the political dominance of the Kshatriyas who ruled in the area, but today these relations are a thing of the past, and the superiority of the Kshatriya landowners is recognized only in ritual terms, and even then not always. The peasants employ Brahmins as family priests and sell their products through members of the trading castes. Individuals from "pure" Shudras can act as tenants of land from brahmins, landowners, merchants. All peasant castes are endogamous, and even if their status is approximately equal, as is the case in many areas, out-of-caste marriages are not allowed. The rules regarding food intake are less strict among the plowman castes than among the "twice-born", they eat meat. Their prescriptions also leave much more space for social acts, allowing, for example, the marriage of widows and divorced women, which is strictly forbidden among the “twice-born”.

Inferior Shudras.

Below those sudras who are engaged in agriculture are numerous castes, whose profession is of a highly specialized nature, but is generally considered less honorable. These are castes of potters, blacksmiths, carpenters, carpenters, weavers, butter makers, distillers, masons, barbers, musicians, tanners, butchers, scavengers and many others. The members of these castes are supposed to practice their hereditary profession or craft; however, if the sudra is able to acquire land, any of them can take up agriculture. Members of many artisan and other professional castes have a traditional relationship with the higher castes, which consists in the provision of services for which no monetary allowance is paid, but an annual remuneration in kind. This payment is made by each household in the village, whose requests are satisfied by this representative of the professional caste. For example, a blacksmith has his own circle of clients, for whom he manufactures and repairs inventory and other metal products all year round, for which he, in turn, is given a certain amount of grain.

Untouchables.

Those whose profession requires physical contact with the client (for example, hairdressers or people who specialize in washing clothes) serve members of castes above their own, but potters or blacksmiths work for the entire village, regardless of which caste the client belongs to. Activities such as tanning or slaughtering animals are seen as clearly defiling, and while these jobs are very important to the community, those who do them are considered untouchables. In many ways they are outside Hindu society, they were called "outcasts", "low", "registered" castes, and Gandhi proposed the euphemism "harijana" ("children of God"), which became widely used. Members of these castes are forbidden to visit the houses of "pure" castes and take water from their wells. Until recently, most Hindu temples were closed to the untouchables, there was even a ban on approaching people from higher castes closer than the set number of steps. The nature of the caste barriers is such that it is believed that the Harijans continue to defile members of the "pure" castes, even if they have long abandoned their caste occupation and are engaged in ritually neutral activities, such as agriculture. Although in other social settings and situations, such as being in an industrial city or on a train, an untouchable may have physical contact with members of higher castes and not defile them, in his native village, untouchability is inseparable from him, no matter what he does.

Economic interdependence.

The various professional castes are economically interdependent, and their functions are complementary rather than competitive. Each caste has the right to perform certain jobs that other castes are prohibited from doing. Its members in any given locality usually form a closely knit group of relatives who do not compete in the struggle for the provision of services to other castes, but by mutual agreement divide the clientele among themselves. For this reason, they are in an advantageous position in relation to the members of the castes, standing at the top rungs of the caste hierarchy, who are forbidden to change at their discretion the blacksmith, hairdresser or person who washes their clothes.

The absence of competition does not apply to persons cultivating the land. Although there are traditional peasant castes whose natives will never become potters or weavers, tillage is not an exclusively hereditary occupation, and a member of any caste can cultivate the land. Wherever the artisan group becomes too numerous and lacks a clientele, or where the introduction of machine-made goods breeds unemployment, those who can no longer live off the traditional profession tend to turn to peasant labor and become agricultural laborers or tenants.

The special patron-client relationship between the higher, land-owning castes and the professional castes of artisans and handymen is called the jajmani system. Jajmanu, which in Hindi means patron-landowner, people from other castes provide services in exchange for a certain amount of grain received annually.

Hierarchy.

The rigid hierarchy and economic interdependence of castes are most closely related to the fact that castes and subcastes are endogamous and are hereditary groups. However, in practice, a person from a high caste may be accepted into a lower caste; so, in the case of an unequal marriage deviating from the rule between members of two different castes, the person who is higher in status has no choice but to ask for his (or her) life partner on Wednesday. Such mobility is always unilinear and directed from top to bottom.

At the heart of the idea of maintaining social distance between castes are the concepts of pollution and ritual purity. Many activities, from performing religious rites and offering prayers to cooking, are only allowed to be done in a state of ritual purity. Thus, a person belonging to a high caste can be defiled not only by a deliberate act, such as sexual intercourse with an untouchable, but also unintentionally, in particular by eating food prepared by a person with a lower ritual status, or even sharing a meal with a person of another higher caste, lost, however, their ritual purity. Defilement is contagious, and a family or caste group must remain constantly vigilant for any contact with a potential taint. Caste members are extremely intolerant of deviant behavior on the part of their caste brethren and excommunicate anyone who does not comply with accepted norms. Most castes have their own regional councils that deal with matters affecting the welfare and especially the prestige of the caste. These councils also function as courts and have the power to investigate and punish wrongdoing, expelling the offender from the caste if necessary. Return to it is possible in all cases, except for particularly egregious ones, provided that the violator pays a fine and undergoes a purification rite. Being extremely strict regarding the observance of rules and prohibitions within their own caste, Hindus are usually tolerant of the norms of behavior adopted in other castes.

Indian caste system outside of India.

This system is common throughout the country, with the exception of a few outlying tribal areas, such as Nagaland. It also prevails in most of Nepal, where immigrants from India brought with them a social order that, in principle, repeats that which existed in medieval India. The indigenous population of the main Nepalese cities, where the Newars live, is largely organized on a caste basis, but the idea of castes has not spread to the peoples of the mountainous regions and adherents of Tibetan Buddhism.

In Bangladesh, the caste system continues to function among the Hindus who survived there, and even in the Muslim community of the country there is a similar stratification.

In Sri Lanka, Sinhala Buddhists and Tamil Hindus are also split into castes. Although there are no Brahmins or other "twice-born" on the island, here, as in India, there is a division of labor along caste lines and mutual obligations of a ritual and economic nature.

Outside of India, the ideas and practices of the caste system dominate, often in a modified and weakened form, wherever significant numbers of Indians have settled, such as Malaysia, East Africa, and Fiji.

TYPICAL INDIAN CASTES

The following is a description of some typical professions or occupations associated with the activities of various groups of castes. Two large areas are taken for consideration of the issue: North and South India. In each subsection, the profession is given first, and then the castes related to it are listed.

CASTES OF NORTH INDIA

The hairdresser.

(Castes: hajjam, nai, nhavi, napit, etc.) Barbers are made up of many castes and are found in most Indian villages, since their services are necessary to maintain the honor and cleanliness of the yard where a family belonging to a high caste lives. The Hindu barber not only shaves, cuts, and manicures the client, but also caters for and cleans up the festivities, assists the priest in wedding ceremonies and dressing the dead, and performs many other important tasks. A Muslim barber or hajjam usually circumcise boys. Persons in this profession may act as a valet, messenger or matchmaker, and their wives provide similar services to women. Barbers visit many houses and are known as gossips and flatterers. In some parts of North and East India, they are classified as high castes, and they themselves consider themselves Brahmins or Kshatriyas; in other areas they are ranked among the lower castes.

Blacksmiths.

(Castes: lohar, kamar, etc.) Blacksmiths monopolize services that a peasant cannot do without. Often they attribute to themselves a divine origin and the status of Brahmins. Their claims are rarely acknowledged, because for Hindu peasants iron is fraught with the power of black magic, and blacksmiths cause either awe or contempt, as they are seen as the masters of the devilish metal. Blacksmiths are both Mohammedans and Hindus, the latter being subdivided according to the type of bellows used to blow the horn, or on some other similar basis.

Brahman.

This term has a different meaning than the names of professional castes, for all Brahmins throughout the country remain "Brahmins", and the individual common names, like Saraswat, Gaur, Kanaujya, Maithil and Utkal, refer mainly to localities or religious sects. Dozens of castes covering the spiritual elite, which are known under the common name "Brahmin", make up approx. 5% of the total population of India. However, they have great influence, which is explained by intellectual specialization and belonging to the higher castes. Brahmins have always been among prominent officials, writers and thinkers, they often belonged to the category of landlords, sometimes became commanders and kings. Within each Brahmin caste, there is usually a distinction between those who have followed the line of a hereditary spiritual profession from those who are pursuing a secular career. Among the Brahmin priests there is a further gradation; above all are the learned theologians and philosophers, one notch below are the family spiritual guides, still below the priests in the temples, and the last one is occupied by the clergy who perform the funeral ritual or perform religious ceremonies for members of the lower castes.

All Brahmin castes, when performing rituals and services, rely on ancient Sanskrit. These castes differ from each other in the languages and dialects used, living in different regions, connection with different sects, possession of “own” books of the sacred Vedas memorized, etc. Members of these castes eat pork and mutton in Kashmir and fish in Bengal and Goa, but Brahmin culture is generally recognized as the model for orthodox Hinduism, its rituals and scholarship. Brahmins are traditionally revered as beings of divine origin.

A carpenter.

(Castes: barkhai, khati, sutar, etc.) He makes and repairs wooden plows, wagons, wooden components of the dwelling, furniture (when available). No one else in the village has a set of tools for working with wood: the carpenter performs a job that is his hereditary monopoly. Almost all carpenters claim that their lineage comes from the god of creation, Vishvakarman. Many wear the sacred thread, lead a more or less austere life, and claim the status of brahmins. Although this claim of theirs is not widely accepted, carpenter castes are generally of high status. In modern India, many members of these castes are employed in industrial enterprises.

Shepherd-cattle breeder.

(Castes: Ahir, Goala, etc.) Many of these large and ubiquitous North Indian castes are considered descendants of tribes that did not speak the Aryan languages and lived in ancient times on the periphery of Indian civilization. The myths about the shepherd castes claim that they are descended from Krishna, the divine shepherd, and have the high status of kshatriyas. Now they live by agriculture rather than cattle breeding. Involved in peasant labor, the Ahirs have long focused on raising horse-drawn cattle, and also raise dairy cows, since the consumption of beef is forbidden to Hindus and only Muslims and members of the lower castes eat it.

Farmer and warrior.

(Castes: Bhuinhar, Gujar, Jat, Koli, Kunbi, Kurmi, Lodha, Maratha, Patidar, Rajbansi, Rajput, etc.) Castes traditionally engaged in agriculture (and occasionally involved in military clashes) are very large and numerous, often with millions of members. Taken together, the agricultural castes constitute the largest grouping of professional castes in India.

Each of these castes gravitates toward one or two states. The area of settlement of the Gujars extends from Kashmir to Rajasthan, the Jats live in the Punjab, the Rajputs and Lodhas are concentrated in Uttar Pradesh, the Bhuinhars (or Bahkhans) in Bihar, the Kurmi in both of these states, the Rajbansi in the northern part of Bengal, the koli and patidars - in the state of Gujarat, Kunbi and Maratha, forming a series of interconnected castes, are in Maharashtra.

In a number of areas, under the rule of the Great Moghuls and the British, the thrones were occupied by Gujars, Jats, Marathas, and especially Rajputs - “sons of kings”. The Rajputs, like the Hindu princely dynasties of other powerful peasant castes, usually wear a sacred thread and consider themselves descendants of the Kshatriyas, or warrior class of the ancient Vedic Aryans. The Bhuinharas are an exception in this respect and claim descent from the Brahmins. In fact, most of these castes are the descendants of later-appearing tribes who invaded or moved to their lands, or strong indigenous agricultural peoples.

Fisherman and boatman.

(Castes: bhoi, bagdi, jalia, kaybartha, koli, mallakhi, etc.) The formation of these castes took place on the basis of the autochthonous population. Among them, bagdi, jalia and kaibartha are famous in the coastal state of West Bengal, mallahs in the Ganges plain, bhoi and koli in Western India. Carriers and boatmen are also recruited from their midst. There is a partial coincidence with the occupations of the higher castes of water carriers, however, in general, the fishing castes, since they are involved in the deprivation of the life of living beings, are on a par with other lower castes.

Gardener.

(Castes: Arain, Kachkhi, Mali, etc.) The members of these castes, like the typically arable ones, are also engaged in the cultivation of field crops, but they specialize in intensive branches of agriculture. The Kachhis are especially famous as master gardeners in the Ganges valley. Most Malis are flower and fruit oriented, but in Western India they, like the Arain Muslims throughout the Punjab, cultivate the same crops intensively as other population groups.

Goatherd and sheep breeder.

(Castes: dhangar, gadaria, etc.) Animal grazing is possible on the low-value lands of many villages, as well as in less populated and arid areas in general. Not only fleece is obtained from animals, but also mutton and goat meat consumed by Muslims and the non-vegetarian majority of Hindus. The content of small cattle, like cattle, is usually combined with farming. However, the social position of the members of these castes is usually lower than that of those who breed cows.

Jeweler.

(Castes: sonar, svarnaker, etc.) There are many of these castes, but they are usually very few in number. In principle, we are talking about those townspeople whose craft is closely intertwined with the life of the village. The goldsmiths try to emphasize their affinity with the Brahmins, often directly identifying themselves with them or claiming that they form a specialized group that has separated from the clergy. In North India, their claims are perceived favorably, which provides jewelers with a very high status. Their prosperity is based on the fact that the villagers like to acquire heavy women's jewelry made of low-grade silver and gold.

Leatherworker.

(Castes: dhor, chamar, chambhar, mahar, etc.) Live cattle for Hindus of higher castes are the most sacred animals, dead cattle are the most defiling. Therefore, among the least prestigious caste occupations is cleaning up the remains of fallen cattle.

One particularly large caste group in India is formed by the many different endogamous castes of tanners, collectively known as the Chamaras. Chamars skin animals and clean the skeleton, tan leather, make shoes and leather buckets, etc. The Chamars have developed a reputation for carrion eating, although they now commonly claim to have abandoned the practice in recent times in favor of higher status. The traditional castes of tanners make up a significant part of the labor force in North India, including a significant stratum of the urban working people.

The caste division between tanners often repeats the professional division of labor. For example, in Maharashtra, the cleaners and skeleton handlers are members of the large Mahar caste, the bone merchants are the Mangas, the leather tanners are the Dhors, and the shoemakers are the Chambhars.

Dealer.

(Castes: arora, banya, bohra, khatri, khoja, lohana, mahajan, marwari, vani, vanya, etc.) goods. Despite territorial differentiation, in the north of India, Hindu merchant castes fall under the generic term "Banya" or, much less often, "Mahajan", while the Muslim trading groups are known as Khoja and Bohra.

All these castes have, as a rule, a very high social status, but their claims, along the Hindu line, to be identified with the ancient "twice-born" estates are formulated very ambiguously. Most of the Hindu and Jain trading castes are characterized by asceticism, vegetarianism and piety. Their members occupy prominent positions in banking, administration, and industry.

Potter.

(Castes: kumhar, kumbhar, kumor, etc.) Masters from the many existing regional castes are usually distinguished by the type of potter's wheel they use and the type of domestic animal on which they transport products (most often it is a donkey). Potters, who occupy a place somewhere in the middle of the caste hierarchy in each particular area, proudly draw an analogy between their work and the creative divine work. At the same time, their goods are indispensable to the broad mass of peasant households. The Hindu festive meal generates the need for one or two disposable utensils (if the utensils are not metal) for each of those present. Hindu potters satisfy these demands by making hundreds of unglazed, handleless cups at very low cost, which can be used once and thrown away; Muslims specialize in the production of more durable products. Potters are not found in every village and try to settle where the clay they need is available.

Buttermakers.

(Castes: Teli, Tili, etc.) This professional category includes the castes of Muslims, Hindus and Lingayats. The traditional work of butter makers is to obtain oil from mustard, sesame or peanut seeds for food and cosmetic purposes, as well as cake for livestock feed. Butter castes differ among themselves in the type of wooden press they use, the number of animals that set the press in motion, and so on. These castes are considered to be low, although some of them, who do not directly extract the oil, but process it, belong to a rather high category of castes.

A mendicant monk.

(Castes: bayrags, fakir, gosain, koswami, jogi, etc.) Almsgiving brings a divine blessing to its giver, regardless of religion and caste of him and her recipient. Fakir castes cover both Hindus and Muslims, Bairags include Vaishnavites, other castes are adherents of the second direction in modern Hinduism, Shaivism. Small in number, but dividing into many sects and apparently distinguished by a variegated origin, castes of this kind are found everywhere, in all regions of India, and often occupy a modest but honorable place in the life of the village community. Many beggars on the streets of Indian cities do not at all belong to the traditional categories of mendicant monks - they are loners from other castes who are forced to change their traditional profession.

Garbage man.

(Castes: Bhangi, Chandal, Churha, etc.) Like the scavengers of rubbish, slop and faeces from houses and streets, this most polluted group of castes is at the very bottom of the Hindu hierarchy. Scavengers often complain that they come from very high castes, but at some point were accidentally defiled. It is believed that they are engaged in black magic and have the ability of mediums. Often they worship a mother goddess who occupies the lowest places in the Hindu pantheon. The scavengers were most successful as scavengers of the night sewage in cities and towns too poor to build sewers.

Scribe.

(Castes: kayashtha, prabhu, etc.) The "bureaucratic" professions have existed since ancient times, but the specialized castes of clerical workers did not appear until the end of the long period of Muslim domination. The scribal-caste-supported myths about their origins suggest that they developed from Brahmin and other high-status Hindu castes, who proved so unorthodox that they collaborated closely with the ruling Mughals. Over the past centuries, many scribes have become wealthy landowners. Members of this caste occupy strong positions in administration and in all modern professions that require a certain level of education, but their share in the total population is small.

Tailor.

(Castes: darzi, shimpi, etc.) In ancient India, sewn clothes were not used. The ancient dress consisted of separate pieces of fabric, which was wrapped around the body. But repeated invasions from Central Asia, plus the influence of Islam and the West, have contributed to the fact that shirts, T-shirts, jackets and tailored hats and, to a lesser extent, trousers have become a familiar element of men's wardrobe.

Castes of tailors, both Muslim and Hindu, developed slowly over the centuries and flourished whenever fashion changed. Apparently, textile merchants and printrs, among others, came or passed into the tailor caste, and the status of the tailor castes was determined by the former position of their members.

Washer (washer).

(Castes: dhobi, soars, etc.) Although anyone can try to restore the cleanliness of his worn dress, it is widely believed that in order to wash the clothes that a woman wore and therefore defiled during menstruation, it is necessary to invite a washer (more precisely, his wife ). Members of this caste also perform a number of duties in special ceremonies: cleansing the house after the birth of a child, symbolically protecting the idol during the procession, massaging the groom with oil, etc.

Washers make up dozens of castes, sometimes differing in the way they are boiled, ironed, and so on. (the massage technique is the same for everyone). In the southern regions of India, they occupy a middle place in the caste structure, in which they are located above barbers, and in the north of the country, where they are less often resorted to for honorary ceremonial services, they are placed much lower, directly above tanners and untouchable scavengers.

Water carrier.

(Castes: bhisti, dhimar, jhinwar, kahar, etc.) Castes that are traditionally involved in delivering water to the house are considered “pure” servants and are at the middle or above the middle rung of the hierarchical ladder. Muslim water carriers use goat furs, Hindu water carriers use only clay or metal vessels. Many of these castes in North India provide a number of other services that are somehow related to their direct craft: they carry palanquins in procession, grow water chestnuts, serve as carriers on rivers, and sometimes fish. The Jhinwars are a caste of water carriers in the state of Punjab, and the Dhimars and Kahars are in the Ganges valley.

Weaver.

(Castes: kori, koshti, jughi, julaha, sali, tanti, etc.). Numerous castes of weavers are characterized by a distinct specialization. It depends on whether wool, silk or cotton is used, how the raw materials are processed, what types of textiles are produced, etc. The castes who make the more expensive textiles are located in the cities, while those who produce the coarser goods, often homespun, usually work in the countryside. The Jugis and Tantis are the main weaving castes in Bengal, the Koshtis and Telugu-speaking Salis in Maharashtra, the Koris in Uttar Pradesh, and the Julaha Muslims in Punjab. The weaving castes have varying social status, ranging from untouchable or almost untouchable to a place of honor among the highest castes. No other craft has suffered as much from the competition of the machine industry as weaving, and most handicraftsmen have been forced to leave their traditional occupation and go to factories or look for other ways to earn money.

SOUTH INDIAN CASTES

Most of the professional castes of South India perform the same functions as in the north. However, castes such as palm wine producers play a prominent role in the south, and some castes of priests and landowners have their own regional characteristics. The following is a description of a number of the most important castes in South India.

Basketman.

(Castes: Bavuri, Bellara, Erula, Gudala, Meda, Parayan, etc.) Basket weaving is a traditional occupation of several South Indian castes. Their social status is invariably very low, and some of them are considered untouchables. Many castes engaged in the manufacture of baskets, bamboo mats, screens, fans and other items from split cane or bamboo were formed on the basis of backward forest tribes. These ethnic groups were forced to take up this occupation after the creation of reserves and the reduction of the forest area forced them to intensify economic contacts with a more developed agricultural population. Basketmakers have maintained a semi-nomadic lifestyle, they move from village to village, offering their products to the peasants. Usually these castes do not break their former connection with the forest, where bamboo and reed are harvested. Most basket-makers have mastered other trades as well. The term "pariya" (outcast) comes from the word "parayan", a caste name for untouchable basket-makers from the state of Kerala.

Brahman.

The position of most of the Brahmin castes in South India is almost the same as in North India, but in view of the fact that large areas in the south were never conquered by Muslims, the privileges and supremacy of the Brahmins were preserved there unchanged. The Brahmins of the regions where Dravidian languages are spoken are divided into Tamil, Telugu (or Andhra) and Karnataka, the latter including the Shivalli priests who speak the Tulu language. This regional group of Brahmins is also divided into Shaivites and Vishnuites. A special position is occupied by the Nambudiri Brahmins, who live in the state of Kerala and constitute the landed aristocracy there.

With the elimination of the rule of local princes, the Nambudiri Brahmins began to take a great interest in politics, and a member of this caste became in Kerala (and in general in the country) the first communist to hold the post of chief minister of the state. In other South Indian states, especially in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, a powerful movement took shape against the occupation of the most important positions in state governments by Brahmins.

Peasant.

(Casts: bant, kurg, kamma, naduwar, nayyar, okkaliga, redi, velll, velami, etc.) Cultivation of the land is not the monopoly of any one group of castes, and the arable land of many villages in South India is divided among different castes, which adhere to similar agricultural practice. But certain castes, especially those with high social status and political influence, traditionally remain the main owners of the land. Members of these castes are contemptuous of any physical labor except arable farming. In Andhra Pradesh, the Redi, Kama and Velami castes are involved in the cultivation of most of the cultivated area. In Karnataka, the position is similar to that of the Okkaligas, in the South Canara district of the same state, the Banthas are an important agricultural group, and in the state of Kerala, the Nayars. Since there are no true Kshatriya castes in many parts of South India, landowners from among the peasant castes are located in the hierarchy of castes immediately after the Brahmins, and over the centuries rulers and local leaders have come out of their ranks.

At the level of the Brahmins, the influence of Sanskrit traditions created a uniformity of values and customs throughout India. However, the differences between the peasant castes that dominated the localities did not lose their strength. Thus, the Redis, Velamis, Kurgis and Vellals adhere to a patriarchal family organization, while among the Naiyars and Banths, property is inherited through the maternal line. The Naiyar family system differs in some respects from the orthodox Hindu system. Until recently, polyandry was the common practice among them, and the ease of divorce and remarriage of the widow remains the norm, while in other places such a practice is clearly condemned by the upper Hindu castes.

Priest.

(Castes: Jangam, Kurukkal, Pandaram, Pujari, etc.) In addition to the Brahmins, there are several other castes in South India that traditionally perform professional religious functions. In a significant part of Karnataka (Tamil Nadu), for example, in temples dedicated to Shiva, rites are performed by the priests of the Lingayat sect of the Jangam; as a rule, brahmins do not enter such temples. At home, the Jangams assume ritual duties only for the sake of other members of the Lingayat sect, while the Brahmins also serve non-Brahmin dwellings. The Jangams are also free to choose any of the non-defiling professions, and many are engaged in agriculture. Another class of hereditary priests, called pujaris (after their function of performing the puja service), is found among several lower castes. Their religious activities are carried out mainly in the sanctuaries of female deities, to which animals are sacrificed.

Winemakers.

(Castes: gamalla, idiga, izkhavan, shanan, tyan, yata, etc.) In many places in South India, the most popular drink is palm sap, which is drunk both fresh and fermented; harvesting this juice is a traditional occupation of the castes, which in some areas make up a significant part of the population. Typically winemakers do not have their own trees and work alongside shopkeepers who pay rent and excise taxes. Often winemakers are simply hired by them for seasonal work. Some of the larger castes of vintners, like the Thyans on the Malabar Coast (Kerala), are also engaged in agriculture or certain types of handicrafts. Since Brahmins and other upper castes have a negative attitude towards the use of alcoholic beverages, the caste status of winemakers is low. In Kerala, there is an official rule according to which the Ihawans are given the lowest position in society. At the same time, individual tyans on the Malabar coast during the period of British rule achieved an honorable position and enjoyed respect. However, this did not improve the situation regarding the place of their community in the hierarchical social structure.

Bricklayer and digger.

(Castes: odde, vaddar, etc.) The caste of wandering diggers, quarry workers, pond diggers, well sinkers and road builders is scattered throughout South India. For centuries, Telugu-speaking Vaddars, found today as far south as the Madurai region of Tamil Nadu, have always been actively involved in the construction of fortifications, irrigation works, railways and other roads. In the caste hierarchy, they immediately stand before the untouchables, their standard of living is also very low. Most Waddar communities do not have permanent settlements and have at their disposal primitive huts located near the place of work.

Thief and robber.

(Castes: Kallar, Korava, Marawar, etc.) Several castes are called "criminal", and until recently they were under police supervision. Some of them still have not left the propensity for theft and petty offenses. However, there are others who are even called Kallars (“thieves”), but now they have switched to agriculture, and behind them only isolated cases of petty theft are known. The Kallars, one of the most numerous castes in southern Tamil Nadu, have long since passed over to a sedentary way of life. They have retained some warlike traditions and are sometimes hired as watchmen, as their familiarity with thieves helps them to guard other people's property. The Marawars, who live compactly in the state of Tamil Nadu, were at one time professional robbers and mercenaries, but over the years they also turned to agricultural pursuits.

Literature:

Vidyalankar S. Origin of the caste system in India. - Bulletin of the history of world culture, 1958, No. 3
Panikkar K.M. Outline of the history of India. M., 1961
Castes in India. M., 1965
Gods,Brahmins,people.Four thousand years of Hinduism. M., 1969
Bisham A. The miracle that was India. M., 1977
Bongard-Levin G.M. ancient Indian civilization. Philosophy. The science. Religion. M., 1980
Pandey R.B. ancient indian home rituals(customs). M., 1982
Kutsenkov A.A. Evolution of Indian castes. M., 1983
Bongard-Levin G.M., Ilyin G.F. India in antiquity. M., 1985

What determines the life of Hindus in modern ashrams and megacities? A system of government built according to European patterns, or a special form of apartheid, which was supported by castes in ancient India and continues to embody today? The clash of the norms of Western civilization with Hindu traditions sometimes leads to unpredictable results.

Varnas and jati

Trying to figure out which castes existed in India and continue to influence its society today, one should turn to the basics of tribal groups. Ancient societies regulated the gene pool and social relations with the help of two principles - endo- and exogamy. The first allows you to create a family only within your area (tribe), the second prohibits marriages between representatives of a part of this community (genus). Endogamy acts as a factor in the preservation of cultural identity, and exogamy opposes the degenerative consequences of closely related ties. To one degree or another, both mechanisms of biosocial regulation are necessary for the existence of civilization. We turn to the experience of South Asia because the role of endogamous castes in modern India and Nepal continues to be the most striking example of the phenomenon.

In the era of territory development (1500 - 1200 BC), the social system of the ancient Hindus already provided for the division into four varnas (colors) - Brahmins (Brahmins), Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Varnas, presumably, were once homogeneous formations without additional class division.

During the early Middle Ages, with the growth of the population and the development of social interaction, the main groups underwent further social stratification. The so-called "jatis" appeared, the status of which is associated with the original origin, the history of the development of the group, professional activities and the region of residence.

In turn, the jati themselves contain many subgroups of different social status. One way or another, the well-proportioned pyramidal structure of subordination can be traced both in the example of the jati and in the case of generalizing super-clans - varnas.

Brahmins are considered the highest caste in India. Priests, theologians and philosophers among them play the role of a link between the worlds of gods and people. Kshatriyas bear the burden of state power and military command. Gautama Siddhartha Buddha is the most famous representative of this varna. The third social category in the Hindu hierarchy, the Vaishyas, are predominantly clans of merchants and landowners. And, finally, the "working ants" of the Shudras are servants and hired workers of a narrow specialization.

The lowest caste in India - the untouchables (a group of Dalits) - is outside the varna system, although they represent about 17% of the population and are involved in active social interaction. This group "brand" should not be taken literally. After all, even priests and warriors do not consider it shameful to have a haircut at the hairdresser - Dalit. Dalit K. R. Narayanan, who was president of the country in 1997-2002, became an example of a fantastic class emancipation of a representative of the untouchable caste in India.

The synonymous perception of untouchables and pariahs by Europeans is a common misconception. Pariahs are completely declassed and completely disenfranchised people, deprived of even the very possibility of group association.

Mutual reflection of economic classes and castes in India

The last time information about class affiliation was studied in 1930 during the census. Then the amount caste in india was more than 3,000. If a bulletin table were used at such an event, it would have up to 200 pages. According to ethnographers and sociologists, the number of Jatis by the beginning of the 21st century had decreased by about half. This may be due to both industrial development and ignoring caste differences among Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas who were educated in Western universities.

Technological progress leads to a certain decline in handicrafts. Industrial corporations, trading and transport companies need armies of identical shudras - workers, detachments of middle managers from among the vaishyas and kshatriyas in the role of top managers.

The mutual projections of economic classes and castes in contemporary India are not obvious. Most of today's politicians are vaishyas, not kshatriyas, as one might assume. The leadership of large trading firms is mainly those who, according to the canon, should be warriors or rulers. And in the countryside there are even impoverished Brahmins cultivating the land...

To understand the contradictory reality of modern caste society, neither recreational tourist trips nor search queries like “India caste photos” will help. It is much more effective to get acquainted with the opinions of L. Alaev, I. Glushkova and other orientalists and Hindus on this issue.

Only tradition can be stronger than the law

The Constitution of 1950 affirms the equality of all estates before the law. Moreover, even the slightest manifestation of discrimination - the question of origin at the time of employment - is a criminal offence. The irony of the collision of the modernist norm with reality is that the Indians accurately determine the group affiliation of the interlocutor in a couple of minutes. Moreover, the name, facial features, speech, education and clothing are not of decisive importance here.

The secret to maintaining the value of endogamy lies in the positive role it can play in social and ideological terms. Even the lower class is a kind of insurance company for its members. Castes and varnas in India are a cultural asset, moral authority and a system of clubs. The authors of the Indian constitution were also aware of this, recognizing the initial endogamy of social groups. In addition, universal suffrage, unexpectedly for the modernizers, became a factor in strengthening caste identification. Group positioning facilitates the tasks of propaganda and the formation of political programs.

This is how the symbiosis of Hinduism and Western democracy develops in a contradictory and unpredictable way. The caste structure of society demonstrates both illogicality and high adaptability to changing conditions. Castes in ancient India were not considered eternal and indestructible formations, despite the fact that they were consecrated by the law of Manu from the “code of honor of the Aryans”. Who knows, perhaps we are witnessing the realization of an ancient Hindu prediction that "in the era of Kali Yuga, everyone will be born as Shudras."

Allan Rannu, a hereditary orientalist, talks about human destiny and about the four varnas as tools for understanding the world and oneself.

It will come across, I know many Indian travelers who live there for months, but they are not interested in castes because they are not necessary for life.
The caste system today, like a century ago, is not exotic, it is part of the complex organization of Indian society, a multifaceted phenomenon that has been studied by Indologists and ethnographers for centuries, dozens of thick books have been written about it, so I will publish here only 10 interesting facts about Indian castah - about the most popular questions and misconceptions.

1. What is an Indian caste?

The Indian caste is such a complex phenomenon that it is simply not possible to give an exhaustively complete definition!
Castes can only be described through a series of features, but there will still be exceptions.
Caste in India is a system of social stratification, a separate social group, connected by the origin and legal status of its members. Castes in India are built according to the principles: 1) common (this rule is always respected); 2) one profession, usually hereditary; 3) members of castes enter into only among themselves, as a rule; 4) caste members generally do not eat with strangers, except in other Hindu castes of a significantly higher social position than their own; 5) members of castes can be determined by who they can take water and food, processed and raw.

2. There are 4 castes in India

Now in India there are not 4, but about 3 thousand castes, they can be called differently in different parts of the country, and people with the same profession can have different castes in different states. For a complete list of modern castes by state, see http://socialjustice...
The fact that nameless people on tourist and other near-Indian sites call 4 castes is not a caste at all, these are 4 varnas - chaturvarna - an ancient social system.

4 varnas (वर्ना) is an ancient Indian system of estates. brahmins (more correctly a brahmin) historically are clergymen, doctors, teachers. Varna kshatriyas (in ancient times it was called rajanya) are rulers and warriors. Varna vaishyas are farmers and merchants, and varna shudras are workers and landless peasants who work for others.
Varna is a color (in Sanskrit again), and each Indian varna has its own color: the Brahmins have white, the Kshatriyas have red, the Vaishyas have yellow, the Shudras have black, and earlier, when all representatives of the varnas wore a sacred thread - he was just their varna.

Varnas correlate with castes, but in very different ways, sometimes there is no direct connection, and since we have already delved into science, it must be said that Indian castes, unlike varnas, are called jati - जाति.
More about Indian castes in modern India

3. Caste of the Untouchables

The untouchables are not a caste. In the days of ancient India, everyone who was not part of the 4 varnas automatically found themselves "overboard" of Indian society, these strangers were avoided, they were not allowed to live in villages, which is why they were called untouchables. Subsequently, these untouchable strangers began to be used in the most dirty, low-paid and shameful work, and formed their own social and professional groups, that is, untouchable castes, in modern India there are several of them, as a rule, this is associated either with dirty work or with murder living creatures or death, so that all hunters and fishermen, as well as gravediggers and tanners, are untouchable.

4. When did the Indian castes appear?

Normatively, that is, legislatively, the cast-jati system in India was fixed in the Laws of Manu, which date back to the 2nd century BC.
The varna system is much older, there is no exact dating. I wrote more about the history of the issue in the article Castes of India, from Varnas to the Present

5. Castes in India are abolished

Castes in modern India are not abolished or banned, as is often said.
On the contrary, all castes in India are recalculated and listed in the appendix to the Indian constitution, which is called the Table of Castes. In addition, after the census, changes are made to this table, as a rule, additions, the point is not that new castes appear, but that they are fixed in accordance with the data indicated about themselves by the census participants.
Only discrimination based on caste is prohibited, this is written in article 15 of the Indian Constitution, see the test at http://lawmin.nic.in...

6. Every Indian has a caste

No, this is also not true.
Indian society is very heterogeneous in its structure, and apart from the division into castes, there are several others.
There are caste and non-caste, for example, representatives of Indian tribes (natives, Adivasis), with rare exceptions, do not have castes. And the part of non-caste Indians is quite large, see the results of the census at http://censusindia.g...
In addition, for some misconduct (crimes), a person can be expelled from the caste and thus deprive him of his status and position in society.

7. Castes are only in India

No, this is a delusion. There are castes in other countries, for example, in Nepal and Sri Lanka, since these countries developed in the bosom of the same huge Indian civilization, as well as on. But there are castes in other cultures, for example, in Tibet, and the Tibetan castes do not correlate with the Indian ones at all, since the class structure of Tibetan society was formed from India.
For the castes of Nepal, see Ethnic Mosaic of Nepal

8. Only Indians have castes.

No, now it is not so, you need to delve into history.
Historically, when the vast majority of the population of India professed, all Hindus belonged to some kind of caste, the only exceptions were pariahs expelled from the castes and the indigenous, tribal peoples of India, who did not profess Hinduism and were not part of Indian society. Then other religions began to spread in India - India was invaded by other peoples, and representatives of other religions and peoples began to adopt from the Hindus their class system of varnas and the system of professional castes - jati. Now there are castes in Jainism, Sikhism, Buddhism and Christianity, but they are different from the Hindu castes.
It is curious that in northern India, in the modern states of Pradesh, the caste system of Buddhists is not of Indian, but of Tibetan origin.
It is even more curious that even Europeans - Christian missionaries-preachers - were drawn into the system of Indian castes: those who preached the teachings of Christ to noble Brahmins ended up in the Christian "Brahmin" caste, and those who communicated with untouchable fishermen became Christian untouchables.

9. You need to know the caste of the Indian with whom you communicate and behave accordingly.

This is a common misconception, replicated by tourist sites, it is not known for what, it is not based on anything.
It is impossible to determine which caste an Indian belongs to only by his appearance, by his occupation - often too. One acquaintance worked as a waiter, although he came from a noble Rajput family (that is, he is a kshatriya). I managed to identify a familiar Nepalese waiter by his behavior as an aristocrat, since we had known each other for a long time, I asked and he confirmed that this was true, and the guy did not work because of a lack of money at all.
My old friend started his career at the age of 9 as a handyman, cleaning up rubbish in a shop... do you think he is a sudra? no, he is a brahmin (brahmin) from a poor family and 8 children in a row ... 1 more brahmin friend sells in a shop, he is the only son, you have to earn money ...
Another acquaintance of mine is so religious and bright that one would think that he is the real, ideal Brahmin. But no, he is just a shudra, and he was proud of this, and those who know what seva means will understand why.
And even if an Indian says what caste he is, although such a question is considered indecent, it will still not give anything to a tourist, a person who does not know India cannot understand what and why is arranged in this amazing country. So you should not be puzzled by the caste issue, because sometimes it is difficult for India to even determine the gender of the interlocutor, and this is probably more important :)

10. Caste discrimination in our time

India is a democratic country and, in addition to the prohibition of caste discrimination, has introduced benefits for representatives of the lower castes and tribes, for example, there are quotas for admission to higher educational institutions, for positions in state and municipal bodies.
discrimination against people from the lower castes, dalits and tribal people in India is quite serious, casteism is still the basis of the life of hundreds of millions of Indians outside of large cities, it is there that the caste structure and all the prohibitions arising from it, for example, in some temples of India Shudra Indians are not allowed in, it is there that almost all caste crimes take place, for example, quite a typical crime

Instead of an afterword.
If you are seriously interested in the caste system in India, I can recommend, in addition to the articles section on this site and publications on the Hindunet, to read major European Indologists of the 20th century:
1. Academic 4-volume work by R.V. Russell "and the castes of the central provinces of India"
2. Louis Dumont's monograph "Homo hierarchicus. Experience in describing the caste system"
In addition, in recent years, a number of books on this topic have been published in India, unfortunately I did not hold them in my hands.
If you are not ready to read non-fiction - read the novel "The God of Small Things" by a very popular modern Indian writer Arundhati Roy, it can be found in RuNet.

At the end of July, a 14-year-old untouchable died in a hospital ward in New Delhi, who had been held in sexual slavery by a neighbor for a month. The dying woman told the police that the kidnapper threatened her with a knife, forced her to drink juice mixed with acid, did not feed her, and, together with friends, raped her several times a day. As law enforcement officers found out, this was already the second kidnapping - the previous one was committed by the same person in December last year, but he was released on bail. According to local media, the court showed such leniency towards the criminal, since his victim was from Dalits (untouchables), which means that her life and freedom were worth nothing. Although discrimination based on caste is prohibited in India, Dalits are still the poorest, most disadvantaged and most uneducated part of society. Why this is so and how far the untouchables can rise up the social ladder - Lenta.ru explains.

How did the untouchables appear?

According to the most common version, these are the descendants of representatives of the tribes who lived in India before the Aryan invasion. In the traditional Aryan system of society, consisting of four varnas - Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants and artisans) and Shudras (hired workers) - Dalits were at the very bottom, below the Shudras, who were also descendants of the pre-Aryan inhabitants of India . At the same time, in India itself, a version that arose back in the 19th century is widespread, according to which the untouchables are the descendants of children expelled into the forests, born from the relationship of a Sudra man and a Brahmin woman.

In the ancient Indian literary monument "Rigveda" (compiled in 1700-1100 BC), it is said that the Brahmins came from the mouth of the ancestor Purusha, the Kshatriyas - from the hands, the Vaishyas - from the hips, the Shudras - from the feet. There is no place for the untouchables in this picture of the world. The varna system finally took shape in the interval between the 7th century BC. and II century AD.

It is believed that the untouchable can defile people from the highest varnas, so their houses and villages were built on the outskirts. The system of ritual restrictions among the untouchables is no less strict than that of the Brahmins, although the restrictions themselves are completely different. The untouchables were forbidden to enter restaurants and temples, wear umbrellas and shoes, walk in shirts and sunglasses, but they were allowed to eat meat - which strict vegetarian Brahmins could not afford.

Is that what they are called in India - "untouchables"?

Now this word is almost out of use, it is considered offensive. The most common name for the untouchables is dalits, "oppressed", or "oppressed". Previously, there was also the word "harijans" - "children of God", which Mahatma Gandhi tried to introduce into use. But it did not take root: the Dalits found it to be just as offensive as the "untouchables".

How many Dalits are there in India and how many castes do they have?

Approximately 170 million people - 16.6 percent of the total population. The question of the number of castes is very complicated, since the Indians themselves hardly use the word “castes”, preferring the more vague concept of “jati”, which includes not only castes in the usual sense, but also clans and communities, which are often difficult to classify as one or the other. another varna. In addition, the line between caste and podcast is often very vague. We can only say with certainty that we are talking about hundreds of jati.

Dalits still live in poverty? How is social status related to economic status?

In general, the lower castes are indeed much poorer. The bulk of the Indian poor are Dalits. The average literacy rate in the country is 75 percent, among Dalits - just over 30. Almost half of the children of Dalits, according to statistics, drop out of school because of the humiliation they are subjected to there. It is the Dalits who make up the bulk of the unemployed; and those who are employed tend to be paid less than those of the higher castes.

Although there are exceptions: in India, there are approximately 30 millionaire Dalits. Of course, against the backdrop of 170 million poor and beggars, this is a drop in the bucket, but they prove with their lives that you can succeed even as a Dalit. As a rule, these are really outstanding people: Ashok Khade from the Chamar (tanner) caste, the son of an illiterate poor shoemaker, worked as a dock worker during the day and read textbooks at night to get an engineering degree, and at the same time slept under the stairs on the street, since he did not enough money to rent a room. His company is now pursuing deals worth hundreds of millions of dollars. This is a typical Dalit success story, a kind of blue dream for millions of the underprivileged.

Have the untouchables ever tried to start a riot?

As far as we know, no. Before the colonization of India, this thought could hardly have occurred at all: at that time, expulsion from the caste was equated with physical death. After colonization, social boundaries began to gradually blur, and after India gained independence, the rebellion for Dalits lost its meaning - they were given all the conditions to achieve their goals through political means.

The extent to which submissiveness has become ingrained in the minds of Dalits can be illustrated by an example given by Russian researchers Felix and Evgenia Yurlov. The Bahujan Samaj Party, representing the interests of the lower castes, organized special training camps for Dalits, in which they learned to "overcome centuries of fear and fear in the face of high-caste Hindus." Among the exercises was, for example, the following: a stuffed high-caste Hindu with a mustache and a tilak (dot) on his forehead was installed. Dalit had to overcome his timidity and go up to the effigy, cut off his mustache with scissors and wipe off the tilak.

Is it possible to escape from the untouchables?

It is possible, although not easy. The easiest way is to change religion. A person who converts to Buddhism, Islam or Christianity technically falls out of the caste system. Dalits first began converting to Buddhism in significant numbers at the end of the 19th century. Mass conversions are associated with the name of the famous fighter for the rights of Dalits, Dr. Ambedkar, who converted to Buddhism along with half a million untouchables. The last such mass ceremony was held in Mumbai in 2007 - then at the same time 50 thousand people became Buddhists at once.

Dalits prefer to turn to Buddhism. Firstly, Indian nationalists treat this religion better than Islam and Christianity, since it is one of the traditional Indian religions. Secondly, among Muslims and Christians, over time, their own caste division was formed, albeit not as pronounced as among the Hindus.

Is it possible to change caste while remaining a Hindu?

There are two options here: the first is all sorts of semi-legal or illegal methods. For example, many surnames that indicate belonging to a particular caste differ in one or two letters. It is enough to slightly corrupt or charm a clerk in a government office - and, voila, you are already a member of another caste, and sometimes a varna. It is better, of course, to do such tricks either in the city, or in combination with moving to another area where there are not thousands of fellow villagers around who knew your grandfather.

The second option is the procedure "ghar vapasi", literally "welcome home". This program is implemented by radical Hindu organizations and aims to convert Indians of other religions to Hinduism. In this case, a person becomes, for example, a Christian, then sprinkles ashes on his head, announcing his desire to make a "ghar vapasi" - and that's all, he is again a Hindu. If this trick is done outside your native village, then you can always claim that you belong to a different caste.

Another question is why do all this. A caste certificate will not be asked when applying for a job or when entering a restaurant. In India, over the past century, the caste system has been breaking down under the influence of the processes of modernization and globalization. Attitude towards a stranger is built on the basis of his behavior. The only thing that can fail is the surname, which is most often associated with the caste (Gandhis - merchants, Deshpande - brahmins, Acharis - carpenters, Guptas - vaishyas, Singhas - kshatriyas). But now, when anyone can change their last name, everything has become much easier.

And change the varna without changing the caste?

There is a chance that your caste will undergo a Sanskritization process. In Russian, this is called “vertical mobility of castes”: if one or another caste adopts the traditions and customs of another, higher caste, there is a chance that sooner or later it will be recognized as a member of a higher varna. For example, the lower caste begins to practice vegetarianism, characteristic of the Brahmins, dress like Brahmins, wear a sacred thread on the wrist and generally position themselves as Brahmins, it is possible that sooner or later they will begin to be treated as Brahmins.

However, vertical mobility is characteristic mainly of castes of higher varnas. None of the Dalit castes has yet managed to cross the invisible line separating them from the four varnas and even become Shudras. But times are changing.

In general, as a Hindu, you are not required to declare belonging to any caste. You can be a casteless Hindu - your right.

Why change caste at all?

It all depends on which way to change - up or down. An increase in caste status means that other people for whom the caste is significant will treat you with more respect. Downgrading, especially to the Dalit caste level, will give you a number of real advantages, so many higher castes try to enroll as Dalits.

The fact is that in modern India, the authorities are waging a merciless fight against caste discrimination. According to the constitution, any discrimination based on caste is prohibited, and you will even have to pay a fine for asking about caste when applying for a job.

But the country has a mechanism of positive discrimination. A number of castes and tribes are listed as "Scheduled Tribes and Castes" (SC/ST). Representatives of these castes have certain privileges, which are confirmed by caste certificates. For Dalits, places are reserved in the civil service and in parliament, their children are admitted free of charge (or for half the fee) to schools, places are allocated for them in institutes. In short, there is a quota system for Dalits.

It's hard to say if this is good or bad. The author of these lines met Dalits who could give odds to any Brahmin in terms of intelligence and general development - quotas helped them rise from the bottom and get an education. On the other hand, one had to see Dalits going with the flow (first by quotas for the institute, then by the same quotas for the civil service), not interested in anything and not wanting to work. They cannot be fired, so their future is secured until old age and a good pension. Many in India criticize the quota system, many defend it.

So Dalits can be politicians?

How else can they. For example, Kocheril Raman Narayanan, who was President of India from 1997 to 2002, was a Dalit. Another example is Mayawati Prabhu Das, also known as the Mayawati Iron Lady, who served as Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh for a total of eight years.

Is the number of Dalits the same in all states of India?

No, it varies, and quite significantly. Most Dalits live in the state of Uttar Pradesh (20.5 percent of all Dalits in India), followed by West Bengal (10.7 percent). At the same time, as a percentage of the total population, Punjab holds the lead with 31.9 percent, followed by Himachal Pradesh with 25.2 percent.

How can Dalits work?

Theoretically, anyone - from the president to the toilet cleaner. Many Dalits act in films and work as fashion models. In cities where caste lines are blurred, there are no restrictions at all; in villages where ancient traditions are strong, Dalits are still engaged in "impure" work: skinning dead animals, digging graves, prostitution, and so on.

If a child is born as a result of an inter-caste marriage, to which caste will he be assigned?

Traditionally in India, the child was recorded in the lowest caste. Now it is considered that the child inherits the caste of the father, with the exception of the state of Kerala, where, according to local law, the caste of the mother is inherited. This is theoretically possible in other states, but in each individual case it is decided through the courts.

A typical story that happened in 2012: then a Kshatriya man married a woman from the Nayak tribe. The boy was registered as a kshatriya, but then his mother, through the courts, ensured that the child was rewritten as a nayak so that he could take advantage of the bonuses provided to disadvantaged tribes.

If I, as a tourist in India, touch a Dalit, can I then shake hands with a Brahmin?

Foreigners in Hinduism are already considered unclean, because they are outside the caste system, therefore they can touch anyone and for whatever reason, without defiling themselves in any way. If a practicing brahmin decides to communicate with you, then he will still have to perform purification rituals, so whether you shook the Dalit's hand before or not is essentially indifferent.

Are Dalits Filming Intercaste Porn in India?

Of course they do. Moreover, judging by the number of views on specialized sites, it is very popular.