Memory-- a form of mental reflection, which consists in consolidating, preserving and subsequently reproducing past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activity or return to the sphere of consciousness.

Memory connects a subject’s past with his present and future and is the most important cognitive function underlying development and learning.

Psychology of cognitive processes

Memory-- the basis of mental activity. Without it, it is impossible to understand the basics of the formation of behavior, thinking, consciousness, and subconsciousness. Therefore for better understanding a person needs to know as much as possible about our memory.

Images of objects or processes of real reality that we previously perceived and now mentally reproduce are called representations.

Representation memories are a reproduction, more or less accurate, of objects or phenomena that once acted on our senses. Representations of the imagination-- this is a performance O objects that we have never perceived in such combinations or in this form. Representations of the imagination are also based on past perceptions, but these latter serve only as material from which we create new ideas with the help of imagination.

Memory is based on associations or connections. Objects or phenomena that are connected in reality are also connected in human memory. We can, having encountered one of these objects, by association remember another associated with it; remember something-- means to connect what needs to be remembered with something already known, to form an association.

From a physiological point of view, an association is a temporary neural connection. There are two types of associations: by contiguity, by similarity and by contrast. Adjacency Association combines two phenomena related in time or space. Such an association by contiguity is formed, for example, when memorizing the alphabet: when naming a letter, the one that follows it is remembered. Association by Similarity connects two phenomena that have similar features: when one is mentioned, the other is remembered.

Association by contrast connects two opposing phenomena.

In addition to these types, there are complex associations - associations by meaning; they connect two phenomena that in reality are constantly connected: part and whole, genus and species, cause and effect. These connections, associations in meaning, are the basis of our knowledge.

To form a temporary connection, the repeated coincidence of two stimuli in time is required; to form an association, repetition is required. But repetitions alone are not enough. Sometimes many repetitions do not give results,

and sometimes, on the contrary, a connection occurs at once, if a strong focus of excitation has arisen in the cerebral cortex, facilitating the formation of a temporary connection.

A more important condition for the formation of an association is business reinforcement, i.e., the inclusion of what needs to be remembered in the actions of students, their application of knowledge in the process of assimilation.

Basic memory processes are memorization, storage, recognition and reproduction.

Memorization-- a process aimed at preserving received impressions in memory, a prerequisite for preservation.

Preservation-- the process of active processing, systematization, generalization of material, mastery of it.

Reproduction and recognition-- processes of restoration of what was previously perceived. The difference between them is that recognition takes place when meeting again with the object, when it is re-perceived. Reproduction occurs in the absence of an object.

Types of memory:

1. Involuntary memory (information is remembered by itself without special memorization, but in the course of performing an activity, in the course of working on information). Strongly developed in childhood, weakens in adults.
2. Arbitrary memory (information is remembered purposefully using special techniques). The efficiency of random memory depends on:
1. From memorization purposes(how firmly, for how long a person wants to remember). If the goal is to learn in order to pass the exam, then soon after the exam much will be forgotten; if the goal is to learn for a long time, for the future professional activity, That information is rarely forgotten.
2. From learning techniques. Methods of learning are:
- A) mechanical verbatim repetition-- works mechanical memory, a lot of effort and time are spent, but the results are poor. Mechanical memory is memory based on repeating material without comprehending it;
- b) logical retelling, which includes logical comprehension of the material, systematization, identification of the main logical components of information, retelling in your own words - logical memory (semantic) works - a type of memory based on the establishment of semantic connections in the memorized material. The efficiency of logical memory is 20 times higher, better than mechanical memory;
- V) figurative devices memorization (translation of information into images, graphs, diagrams, pictures) - figurative memory works. Figurative memory It happens different types: visual, auditory, motor-motor, gustatory, tactile, olfactory, emotional;
- G) mnemonic techniques memorization (special techniques to facilitate memorization).

The ability to constantly accumulate information, which is the most important feature psyche, is universal in nature, covers all areas And periods of mental activity and in many cases is realized automatically, almost unconsciously. As an example, we can cite a case: a completely illiterate woman fell ill and, in a feverish delirium, loudly shouted Latin and Greek sayings, the meaning of which she clearly did not understand. It turned out that as a child she served under a pastor who used to memorize quotes from ancient classics out loud. The woman involuntarily remembered them forever, which, however, she herself did not suspect before her illness.

All living beings have memory. Evidence has emerged of the ability to remember even in plants. In the very in a broad sense memory can be defined as a mechanism for recording information acquired and used by a living organism. Human memory is, first of all, accumulation, consolidation, preservation And a person’s subsequent reproduction of his experience, i.e., everything that happened to him. Memory is a way of existence of the psyche in time, retention of the past, i.e., that which no longer exists in the present. That's why memory--a necessary condition for the unity of the human psyche, our psychological identity.

Memory structure Most psychologists recognize the existence of several levels of memory, differing in how long each level can retain information. The first level corresponds to direct or touch type memory. Its systems hold fairly accurate and complete data about how the world is perceived by our senses at the receptor level. The duration of data storage is 0.1--0.5 seconds.

Discovering how our sensory memory works is not difficult. Close your eyes, then open them for a moment and close them again. Observe how the clear, clear picture you see remains for some time, and then slowly disappears. This is the content of sensory memory. If the information received in this way attracts the attention of the higher parts of the brain, it will be stored for about 20 seconds (without repeating or replaying the signal while the brain processes and interprets it). This is the second level -- short-term memory.

Information similar to several last words sentences (which you just heard or read), telephone numbers, someone's last name, can be retained by short-term memory in a very limited volume: five to nine numbers, letters or the name of five to nine objects. And only by making a conscious effort, repeating the material contained in short-term memory again and again, can it be retained for an indefinitely long time.

Consequently, short-term memory is still amenable to conscious regulation and can be controlled by a person. But the “immediate imprints” of sensory information cannot be repeated; they are stored only for tenths of a second and the psyche has no ability to extend them.

Any information first enters short-term memory, which ensures that information presented once is remembered for a short time, after which the information can be forgotten completely or go into long-term memory, but subject to repetition 1-2 times. Short-term memory (SM) is limited in volume; with a single presentation, an average of 7 ± 2 fits into the SM. This is the magic formula for human memory, i.e., on average, a person can remember from 5 to 9 words, figures, numbers, figures in one sitting , pictures, pieces of information. The main thing is to ensure that these “pieces” are more information-rich through grouping, combining numbers and words into a single integral “piece-image”. The volume of short-term memory is individual for each person; based on the volume of short-term memory, one can predict the success of training using the formula: OKP/2 + 1 = academic score.

Long-term memory ensures long-term storage of information. It comes in two types: 1) DP with conscious access (i.e. a person can voluntarily extract and remember the necessary information); 2) DP is closed (a person under natural conditions does not have access to it; only through hypnosis, when irritating parts of the brain, can he gain access to it and update in all details images, experiences, pictures of his whole life).

RAM- a type of memory that manifests itself V during the execution of a certain activity, serving this activity by storing information coming from both the CP and the DP necessary to perform the current activity.

Intermediate memory ensures the preservation of information for several hours, accumulates information during the day, and the time of night sleep is allocated by the body to clear intermediate memory and categorize information accumulated over the past day, transferring it to long-term memory. At the end of sleep, intermediate memory is again ready to receive new information. In a person who sleeps less than three hours a day, intermediate memory does not have time to be cleared, as a result, the performance of mental and computational operations is disrupted, attention and short-term memory decrease, and errors appear in speech and actions.

Long-term memory with conscious access is characterized by pattern of forgetting: Everything unnecessary and unimportant is forgotten, as well as a certain percentage of necessary information.

Forgetting can be complete or partial, long-term or temporary. In case of complete forgetting, the material is not only not reproduced, but also not recognized. Partial forgetting of material occurs when a person does not reproduce it all or with errors, as well as when he learns it, but cannot reproduce it. Physiologists explain temporary forgetting by inhibition of temporary nerve connections, complete forgetting by their extinction. Research into the forgetting process has revealed interesting feature: the most accurate and complete reproduction of complex and extensive material usually occurs not immediately after memorization, but after 2-3 days. This enhanced delayed playback is called reminiscence.

Forgetting factors Most problems with pa-

Memory is not associated with difficulties in memorizing, but rather in recollection. Some data modern science allow us to assert that the information V memory is stored indefinitely, but most of it a person (under normal conditions) cannot use. It is practically inaccessible to him, he “forgot” it, although he rightly claims that he once “knew” about it, read, heard, but... This is forgetting, temporary situational, sudden, complete or partial, selective and etc., i.e. a process leading to a loss of clarity and a reduction in the volume of information that can be updated V psyche of data. The depth of forgetting can be amazing; sometimes those who “forgot” deny the very fact of their acquaintance with what they need to remember, and do not recognize what they have repeatedly encountered.

Forgetting can be caused by various factors. The first and most obvious of them is time. It takes less than an hour to forget half of the material you learned mechanically.

To reduce forgetting it is necessary: 1) understanding, comprehension of information (mechanically learned, but not fully understood information is forgotten quickly and almost completely - curve 1 on the graph); 2) repetition of information (the first repetition is necessary 40 minutes after memorization, because after an hour only 50% of the information remains in memory

% of information memorization

% A 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

1 2 3 4 5 10 15 30 60 90

Elapsed time (in days)

Rice. 3.1. Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve: A-- meaningless material; b-- logical processing; V- when repeating mechanically memorized information). It is necessary to repeat it more often in the first days after memorization, since on these days the losses from forgetting are maximum. It’s better this way: on the first day - 2-3 repetitions, on the second day - 1-2 repetitions, on the third-seventh day - one repetition each, then one repetition with an interval of 7-10 days. Remember that 30 repetitions over the course of a month is more effective than 100 repetitions per day. Therefore, systematic, without overload, studying, memorizing in small portions throughout the semester with periodic repetitions after 10 days is much more effective than concentrated memorization of a large amount of information in a short session, causing mental and mental overload and almost complete forgetting of information a week after the session.

Forgetting largely depends on the nature of the activity, immediately preceding memorization and occurring after it.

The negative influence of activities preceding memorization is called proactive braking. The negative influence of the activity following memorization is called retroactive inhibition it is especially pronounced in cases where, following memorization, an activity similar to it is performed or if this activity requires significant effort.

When we noted that forgetting is determined by the time elapsed after memorization, we can assume an obvious relationship: the longer the time the information remains in the psyche, the deeper the forgetting. But the psyche is characterized by paradoxical phenomena: older people (age is a temporary characteristic) easily remember the past, but just as easily forget what they just heard. This phenomenon is called "Ribault's law", the law of memory reversal.

An important factor in forgetting is usually considered the degree of activity in the use of available information. What is forgotten is what there is no constant need or necessity. This is true most of all in relation to semantic memory for information received in adulthood.

Childhood impressions and motor skills (riding a bicycle, playing the guitar, swimming) remain fairly stable for decades, without any exercise. There is, however, a known case where a man, who had been in prison for about three years, forgot how to tie not only his tie, but also his shoelaces.

Forgetting MSGT to be due to the work of the defense mechanisms of our psyche, which displace traumatic impressions from consciousness into the subconscious, where they are then more or less securely retained. Consequently, what is “forgotten” is something that disturbs the psychological balance and causes constant negative tension (“motivated forgetting”).

Reproduction forms:

* recognition is a manifestation of memory that occurs upon repeated perception of an object;
* memory, which occurs in the absence of perception of the object;
* recall, which is the most active form of reproduction, largely dependent on the clarity of the tasks assigned, on the degree of logical ordering of the memorized And information stored in the DP;
* reminiscence - delayed reproduction of something previously perceived that seemed forgotten;
* eidetism is a visual memory that retains a vivid image for a long time with all the details of what was perceived.

Types of memory IN according to the type of memory

In this case, the following four types of memory are distinguished. Genetically primary is considered motor memory, i.e. the ability to remember and reproduce a system of motor operations (type on a typewriter, tie a tie, use tools, drive a car And etc.). Then it is formed figurative memory, i.e., the ability to save and further use the data of our perception. Depending on which analyzer took the greatest part in the formation of the image, we can talk about five subtypes of figurative memory: visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory and gustatory. The human psyche is focused primarily on visual and auditory memory, which is characterized by great differentiation (especially “memory” for faces, situations, intonations And etc.).

Almost simultaneously with the motor one, it is formed emotional memory, which is a recording of the feelings we have experienced, our own emotional states and affects. A person who was greatly frightened by a dog jumping out of the entrance will flinch for a long time as he passes by (memory of fear, shame, blind rage And etc.). The highest type of memory, inherent only to man, is considered verbal(sometimes called

verbal-logical or semantic) memory. With its help, the information base of the human intellect is formed, most mental actions are carried out (reading, counting, etc.). Semantic memory as a product of culture includes forms of thinking, methods of cognition and analysis, and basic grammatical rules of the native language.

Classification of types of memory by nature mental activity Motor (or motor) memory is the memorization, storage and reproduction of various movements. Motor memory is the basis for the formation of various practical and work skills, as well as the skills of walking, writing, etc. Motor (or motor) memory is the memorization, storage and reproduction of various movements. Motor memory is the basis for the formation of various practical and work skills, as well as the skills of walking, writing, etc.

Continuation Motor (motor) memory involves memorizing and reproducing movements, and is involved in the formation of motor skills. It is extremely important for some specialties that require quick and accurate reproduction of complex and precise movements - surgeons, dancers, jugglers, musicians, gymnasts, athletes, etc. Motor (motor) memory involves memorizing and reproducing movements, and is involved in the formation of motor skills. It is extremely important for some specialties that require quick and accurate reproduction of complex and precise movements - surgeons, dancers, jugglers, musicians, gymnasts, athletes, etc. The motor type of memory is characteristic of those people who, without much difficulty, learn complex movements, sports exercises, They learn to dance easily and can deftly use the finest instruments. The motor type of memory is characteristic of those people who easily learn complex movements and sports exercises, easily learn to dance, and can deftly use the finest instruments. Motor memory is most important in the first weeks and months of a child’s life. Motor memory is most important in the first weeks and months of a child’s life.

Classification of types of memory according to the nature of mental activity Emotional memory is the memory of feelings; the ability to remember, preserve and reproduce feelings and emotions. Emotional memory is the memory of feelings; the ability to remember, preserve and reproduce feelings and emotions. Emotional memory determines the reproduction of a feeling state upon repeated exposure to the situation in which this emotional state arose for the first time. The peculiarities of this memory are the speed of formation of traces, their special strength and involuntary reproduction. Feelings experienced and stored in memory act as signals that either encourage action or deter actions that caused negative experiences in the past. Feelings experienced and stored in memory act as signals that either encourage action or deter actions that caused negative experiences in the past.

Classification of types of memory according to the nature of mental activity. Figurative memory is the manipulation of information presented in the form of images reflecting objects, events, pictures of nature and life. The essence of figurative memory is that what was previously perceived is then reproduced in the form of ideas. Distinctive feature figurative memory is a certain transformation of the memory image during the period of its retention (simplification, schematization, omitting some details, changing shape, color). These transformations perform the most important function of generalization, highlighting the essential, turning the image into a certain scheme, a symbol containing much more information than a single stimulus. Figurative memory is the manipulation of information presented in the form of images reflecting objects, events, pictures of nature and life. The essence of figurative memory is that what was previously perceived is then reproduced in the form of ideas. A distinctive feature of figurative memory is a certain transformation of the memory image during the period of its retention (simplification, schematization, omitting some details, changing shape, color). These transformations perform the most important function of generalization, highlighting the essential, turning the image into a certain scheme, a symbol containing much more information than a single stimulus.

Types of figurative memory Figurative memory is divided into visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory, depending on the predominant type of reproduced ideas. A well-developed figurative memory is the basis of imagination - the creative transformation of images and events. The phenomenon of eidetism is the ability of some people to literally see absent objects or pictures that were previously perceived

Examples of unique memory A.S. Pushkin could recite by heart a long poem written by another author after reading it twice. Another example is W. A. Mozart, who memorized the most difficult musical works after one listen. A.S. Pushkin could recite by heart a long poem written by another author after reading it twice. Another example is W. A. Mozart, who memorized the most complex pieces of music after one listening. Russian science knows examples of phenomenal memory. Thus, A.R. Luria discovered an outstanding memory in a certain Sh., who memorized with equal speed various material, including senseless, and, moreover, extremely large volume. Sh. could quickly remember and accurately reproduce the most complex mathematical formulas, devoid of meaning, meaningless words, geometric figures. After 20 years, he accurately recalled the content of the experimental material, the place of the experiment in which he participated, as well as what the experimenter was wearing, and other small details of the situation and his actions. Russian science knows examples of phenomenal memory. Thus, A.R. Luria discovered an outstanding memory in a certain Sh., who memorized various material, including meaningless, with equal speed, and, moreover, in an extremely large volume. Sh. could quickly remember and accurately reproduce the most complex mathematical formulas, devoid of meaning, meaningless words, geometric figures. After 20 years, he accurately recalled the content of the experimental material, the place of the experiment in which he participated, as well as what the experimenter was wearing, and other small details of the situation and his actions.

Nikolai Nikolaevich Ge (

Absolute pitch- an analogue of eidetic memory Johann Chrysostomus Wolfgang Theophilus Mozart (German: Joannes Chrysostomus Wolfgang Theophilus Mozart). Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Johann Chrysostomus Wolfgang Theophilus Mozart (German: Joannes Chrysostomus Wolfgang Theophilus Mozart). Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. (). He was a virtuoso violinist, harpsichordist, organist, and conductor. According to contemporaries, he had a phenomenal musical ear, memory and ability to improvise. (). He was a virtuoso violinist, harpsichordist, organist, and conductor. According to contemporaries, he had a phenomenal ear for music, memory and the ability to improvise.

Sergei Vasilyevich Rahmaninov ()

Classification of types of memory according to the nature of mental activity Verbal-logical (symbolic) memory is expressed in remembering and reproducing our thoughts. the main role it is allocated to the second signal system. Verbal-logical memory specifically human memory, in contrast to motor, emotional and figurative, which in their simplest forms are also characteristic of animals. Developing throughout a person’s life, verbal-logical memory becomes leading in relation to other types of memory. Verbal-logical (symbolic) memory is expressed in remembering and reproducing our thoughts. The main role in it is given to the second signaling system. Verbal-logical memory is specifically human memory, in contrast to motor, emotional and figurative memory, which in their simplest forms are also characteristic of animals. Developing throughout a person’s life, verbal-logical memory becomes leading in relation to other types of memory.

Classification of types of memory according to the duration of information storage Sensory (iconic) memory - “imprint” of perceived stimuli (0.1-0.5 sec) Sensory (iconic) memory - “imprint” of perceived stimuli (0.1-0.5 sec) Short-term memory brief storage of perceived information (1-7 min). Short-term memory - brief storage of perceived information (1-7 min). RAM - mnemonic processes that serve actual actions and operations directly carried out by a person. RAM - mnemonic processes that serve actual actions and operations directly carried out by a person. Long-term memory - long-term storage of a large amount of information Long-term memory - long-term storage of a large amount of information

Classification of types of memory according to the nature of the goals of the activity Involuntary - memorization and reproduction, which is carried out automatically, without volitional efforts of a person, without control by consciousness. Involuntary - memorization and reproduction, which is carried out automatically, without volitional efforts of a person, without control by consciousness. Arbitrary - a special mnemonic task is set to remember or recall something. Arbitrary - a special mnemonic task is set to remember or recall something.

The main memory processes are distinguished according to the criterion of the stages of information processing: Memorization Memorization Preservation Preservation Forgetting Forgetting Reproduction Reproduction Memory processes reflect the heterogeneity, complexity of the functioning of memory, its essence.

Ensures retention of information in memory. At the first stage - continuation of perception. The next stage is the processing of information into CP, which includes a number of transformation operations: selection, repetition, coding. Coding presupposes the inclusion of imprinted material, presupposes its inclusion in a certain system of cognitive connections. Memorization as a memory process

Involuntary memorization To a greater extent selective, not systematic enough, not complete enough. Information is involuntarily remembered that has an emotional impact. Has an emotional impact. Is in the spotlight. Is in the spotlight. Corresponds to human needs. Corresponding to human needs. The effectiveness of involuntary memorization is facilitated by: 1. Breaking the material down into its component parts, coming up with titles, highlighting strong points. 2. Mental comparison of individual parts. 3. Classification of material. 4. Statement in your own words, retelling. 5. Visualization: inclusion of visual diagrams, tables, pictures, diagrams.

It is subordinated to a specific mnemonic task (to remember) and represents a complex mental activity. Involves concentration of voluntary attention for: - analysis and comprehension of the material; - analysis and comprehension of the material; - conscious use in various ways memorization; - conscious use of various methods of memorization; - repeated repetition. - repeated repetition. The success of voluntary memory depends on: The success of voluntary memory depends on: setting to remember; memorization purposes; memory settings; memorization purposes; using rational and productive methods of learning; using rational and productive methods of learning; volume, complexity and difficulty of the material; volume, complexity and difficulty of the material; concentration; concentration; establishing associations; establishing associations; significance of the material; significance of the material; personal characteristics; personal characteristics; mnemonic techniques of memorization. mnemonic techniques of memorization. Mechanical verbatim repetition (quite low results); logical processing (20 times higher than mechanical); Voluntary memorization

Retention as a memory process - The ability to retain material in memory for a certain period of time, until the moment of its actualization. A complex dynamic process, including processing of material: classification, systematization, generalization, consolidation, etc. Storage activity: the reconstruction of material stored by long-term memory occurs primarily under the influence of new information continuously arriving from our senses. Reconstruction manifests itself in various forms, for example, in the disappearance of less significant details and their replacement with other details, in a change in the sequence of material, in the degree of its generalization.

Forgetting Forgetting is a process that leads to a loss of clarity and a decrease in the volume of material fixed in memory, the inability to reproduce, and in extreme cases even learn what was known from past experience. Forgetting is a process that leads to a loss of clarity and a decrease in the volume of material fixed in memory, the inability to reproduce, and in extreme cases even learn what was known from past experience. Mechanisms of forgetting: Mechanisms of forgetting: - for sensory memory - extinction of the trace; - for sensory memory and CP - extinction of the trace and any extraneous influence (interference); - for DP – failure to include any trace in a specific system of codes, an ineffective strategy for searching for information in memory. Forgetting is difficult to manage, but it is a process that is necessary for memory to function effectively. Forgetting is difficult to manage, but it is a process that is necessary for memory to function effectively.

Hermann Ebbinghaus () Forgetting is expressed in the inability to restore previously perceived information. lack of updating of information lack of updating of information age-related changes age-related changes time factor time factor action of personal protective mechanisms action of personal protective mechanisms

S. Freud's theory of repression Forgetting is the result of the work of specific defense mechanisms that displace affectogenic and traumatic information from consciousness and subsequently prevent it from entering. Repression is understood as a protective inhibition of super-strong excitations. Forgetting is the result of the work of specific protective mechanisms that displace affective and traumatic information from consciousness and subsequently prevent it from entering. Repression is understood as a protective inhibition of super-strong excitations. Information that is unpleasant to the subject (causing pain, anxiety, guilt) and which can be destructive for his Self is forgotten (repressed). Information that is unpleasant to the subject (causing pain, anxiety, guilt) and which can be destructive is forgotten (repressed). for his self.

Reproduction The process of restoring, reconstructing and updating the contents of memory. The process of restoring, reconstructing and updating the contents of memory. Hierarchy of reproduction: Hierarchy of reproduction: Recognition is a complex mnemonic process that involves searching and updating features in the DP, comparing them with newly presented ones, making a decision about their coincidence or mismatch. Recognition is a complex mnemonic process that involves searching and updating features in the DP, comparing them with newly presented ones, and making a decision about their coincidence or mismatch. Reproduction itself is the intentional or unintentional updating of material stored in memory. Reproduction itself is the intentional or unintentional updating of material stored in memory. Reminiscence is a delayed, vivid, complete reproduction of the material. Reminiscence is a delayed, vivid, complete reproduction of the material. Recall is a complex process of active search, selection of the desired connection from many possible ones and updating of the selected information. Recall is a complex process of active search, selection of the desired connection from many possible ones and updating of the selected information.

Reproduction is the actualization of thoughts, images, feelings, and movements known from past experience. Types of reproduction: Involuntary reproduction - past impressions are remembered without a special task for their actualization Involuntary reproduction - past impressions are remembered without a special task for their actualization Voluntary reproduction - occurs in connection with a conscious intention to update certain memory traces.

Frederick Charles Bartlett () Unlike modern methods using nonsense words, Bartlett used meaningful word stimuli to study the influence of past experience on the assimilation of new material. Bartlett convincingly demonstrated that people constantly transform facts. In the light of new experiences, the schema changes to provide a dynamic structure, or model, in which the experienced present is interpreted. The functions and structure of memory were considered in the context of culture.

Research by M. N. Shardakov: If you do not repeat the received material on the day of receipt, then after a day 74% of the material is retained in memory, after three to four days 66%, after a month - 58% and after six months 38%. When repeating the material on the first day, 88% is retained in memory every other day, 84% after three or four days, 70% after a month, and 60% after 6 months. If you organize periodic repetition of the material, then the volume of stored information will be quite large over a considerable period of time.

An experiment conducted by American psychologist M. Jones. Students immediately after the lecture reproduced 71% of its main thoughts, and then they began to forget the perceived material: first faster, and then somewhat slower. From this experience it follows that if students do not work on consolidating educational material in memory, after two months only 25% of it will remain, and the greatest loss (55%) will occur in the first three to four days after perception.

Conclusion Good memory requires attention and structure. Good memory requires attention and structure. Memory organization is useful for two reasons: Memory organization is useful for two reasons: 1) It structures existing information, and remembering a fragment leads to remembering the rest; 2) She connects new material with the previous one, i.e. The deeper the knowledge structure, the easier it is to understand and remember new information. W. James: “Any improvement in memory consists in improving the habitual ways of recording facts.”

– a subjective idea of the world from a personal position. Rethinking reality, one’s worldview is formed from:

events that have already occurred;
actual reality;
actions that need to happen.

The accumulated experience and reproduction of acquired knowledge settles firmly in the past. The present contains information about internal state personality. The future is aimed at realizing goals, objectives, intentions reflected in dreams and fantasies.

The essence of the worldview passing through the psyche

1. Activation.

The psyche is fickle, it changes under the influence external factors and is constantly improving in development. Everyone has own opinion about how the world around us is built. Faced with the contradiction of other people, consciousness changes, transforms into reality, carrying a different meaning.

2. Focus.

By setting guidelines in life, a person sets himself tasks within his capabilities. He will never take on a business that contradicts his principles and does not bring him either moral or financial satisfaction of his needs. There is a deliberate effort to transform an existing substance.

3. Adjustment.

The approach and conditions may change, but the psyche is flexible to temporary transformations and adapts to any change.

4. Uniqueness.

Everyone has inherent specific motivational characteristics and goals for self-development. The view of the world is refracted through the prism of life guidelines. This hinders learning psychological science only from one angle, it is necessary to evaluate all qualities different people to the same extent.

5. Anticipation.

Society creates a platform for the future, displaying surrounding objects and ongoing events in current life. It attracts only the best and most significant for subsequent introduction into activity.

6. Evaluation by the object.

Individual traits are reflected directly in thinking. Possible situations are analyzed and an attitude towards current events is formed.

There are several stages that pass in consciousness from the bodily to the sensory:

Sensory. A physical external aggressor affects a person’s cognitive processes, causing them to react with body and mind. A reaction occurs only to a significant stimulus.
Perceptual. A person unconsciously strives to general view display a complex of irritating elements.
The individual focuses on the cumulative manifestation, reacting to biologically insignificant stimulants that provoke the emergence of sensitivity to important stimuli.
Thoughtful. A strong relationship is established between objects. A person controls it with the help of brain function.

Stages of psychic reflection

The first one is basic. The individual is guided by his feelings and information received from others, determines his behavior in the future. His actions are influenced by objects of reality. Having passed this stage, others are raised to it. This level is never empty, it is multifaceted and constantly changing.
The second level has the main feature of creativity and imagination. This is the highest stage of mental development; a person moves to it when he is created new model inferences about the world around us. She comprehends the actions and adds previously laid down images.
A creative person has difficulty coping with emotions; her thinking consists of continuous ideas. Artistic ability are superimposed on the pictures that appear in the head, and their assimilation depends on subsequent interaction.
The third - its main criterion is the presence of speech. Logic and communication are associated with mental activity based on concepts and techniques used by ancestors. He pushes into the background imagination, memory, sensory images, relying only on rationality in thinking and experience from the previous generation. This allows you to plan and manage your life path.

Only by rethinking and incorporating all stages into his consciousness can a person present the world in a generalized form from a unique point of view, different from those around him. And show it through behavior: facial expressions, gestures, posture.

Memory – a form of mental reflection consisting in consolidation, preservation and subsequent reproduction of past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activity or return to the sphere of consciousness. Memory connects a subject’s past with his present and future and is the most important cognitive function underlying development and learning.

Memory is a process organizing and preserving past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activity or return it to the sphere of consciousness. This is the most important mental function, which is a unifying link in the organization of the psyche. It ensures the integrity and unity of the individual. Any cognitive process turns into memory, and every memory turns into something else. Memory has great value for the life and activities of not only each individual person, but also society as a whole.

Unlike perception, thinking and other mental processes, memory is not directly aimed at reflecting the surrounding world. It deals with second order reflections, which are called representations .

Basic memory processes- This memorization , storage , playback , recognition , recollection And forgetting .

Memorization- This a memory process through which traces are imprinted, new elements of sensations, perceptions, thoughts or experiences are introduced into a system of associative connections. The basis of memorization is the connection of the material with the meaning into one whole. The establishment of semantic connections is the result of the work of thinking on the content of the memorized material.

Storage - the process of accumulating material in the memory structure, including its processing and assimilation. Saving experience makes it possible for a person to learn, develop his perceptual (internal assessments, perception of the world) processes, thinking and speech.

Reproduction and recognition - the process of updating elements of past experience (images, thoughts, feelings, movements). A simple form of reproduction is recognition - recognizing a perceived object or phenomenon as already known from past experience, establishing similarities between the object and its image in memory.

Playback It happens arbitrary And involuntary . With involuntary the image pops up in the head without human effort. If there are difficulties in the process of reproducing, then the process of remembering is underway. Selection of elements necessary from the point of view of the required task. The information reproduced is not an exact copy what is imprinted in memory. Information is always transformed and restructured.

Forgetting- loss of the ability to reproduce, and sometimes even recognize, what was previously remembered. Most often we forget what is insignificant. Forgetting may be partial (reproduction is incomplete or with an error) and complete (impossibility of reproduction and recognition). Highlight temporary And long-term forgetting .

Memory serves all types of diverse human activities. Hence the variety of forms of its manifestation, concentrated in two types of memory genetic (hereditary) and lifetime .

1. Hereditary memory stores information that determines the anatomical and physiological structure of the organism during development, innate forms of species behavior (instincts), as well as some predisposition to certain forms of social behavior.

2. Lifetime memory is a repository of information received from birth to death. According to the content of mental activity in human interaction with environment in lifetime memory there are such kinds: motor, figurative, emotional, verbal-logical.

A) Motor memory– this is the memorization, preservation and reproduction of various movements and their systems. It serves as the basis for the formation of various motor skills (walking, writing, driving a car, using tools when repairing and adjusting machines and mechanisms, and other practical and labor skills). A sign of good motor memory is a person’s physical dexterity, dexterity in working with equipment and tools, etc.

B) Figurative memory- this is the memorization, preservation and reproduction of images of previously perceived objects and phenomena of reality. There are different forms of figurative memory: visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory and gustatory. Visual and auditory memory is most clearly manifested in all people, and the development of tactile, olfactory and gustatory memory is associated primarily with various types of professional activities (for example, tasters or perfumers) or is observed in people deprived of vision and hearing. Figurative memory reaches a high level of development in people involved in art: artists, musicians, writers.

B) Emotional memory- This is a memory of experienced feelings and emotional states. They do not disappear without a trace, but are remembered and reproduced by a person under certain conditions - a person rejoices again, remembering a joyful event, blushes when remembering an awkward act, turns pale, remembering the fear he experienced. Emotional memory - the most important condition moral development of the individual. It can be a powerful motivator for repeating actions and behaviors and underlies the formation of habits.

D) Verbal-logical memory is expressed in memorizing, preserving, reproducing thoughts and concepts. This type of memory is specifically human, in contrast to motor, figurative and emotional, which in their simplest forms are also characteristic of animals. An essential point in the characteristics of verbal-logical memory is that memorization can occur in the same verbal form that was perceived (i.e., verbatim), but can also be carried out in a different speech format (i.e., reproduction in one’s own words) . It depends on the task that a person faces and on the methods of memorization he has developed.

Esoterics. MEMORY IS A FORM OF MENTAL REFLECTION CONSISTING IN THE CONSTITUTION, PRESERVATION AND SUBSEQUENT REPRODUCTION OF PAST EXPERIENCE, MAKES POSSIBLE ITS REUSE IN ACTIVITY OR RETURN TO THE SPHERE OF CONSCIOUSNESS

MEMORY IS A FORM OF MENTAL REFLECTION CONSISTING IN THE CONSTITUTION, PRESERVATION AND SUBSEQUENT REPRODUCTION OF PAST EXPERIENCE, MAKES POSSIBLE ITS REUSE IN ACTIVITY OR RETURN TO THE SPHERE OF CONSCIOUSNESS

“Memory is a form of mental reflection, consisting in consolidation, preservation and subsequent reproduction of past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activity or return to the sphere of consciousness”

Memory is a form of mental reflection that consists in consolidating, preserving and subsequently reproducing past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activity or return to the sphere of consciousness. Memory connects a subject’s past with his present and future and is the most important cognitive function underlying development and learning.

Memory is the basis of mental activity. Without it, it is impossible to understand the basics of the formation of behavior, thinking, consciousness, and subconsciousness. Therefore, to better understand a person, it is necessary to know as much as possible about our memory.

Images of objects or processes of real reality that we previously perceived and now mentally reproduce are called representations.

Memory representations are divided into single and general.

Memory representations are a reproduction, more or less accurate, of objects or phenomena that once affected our senses. The idea of imagination is the idea of objects and phenomena that we have never perceived in such combinations or in this form. Such ideas are a product of our imagination. Representations of the imagination are also based on past perceptions, but these latter serve only as material from which we create new ideas and images with the help of the imagination.

Memory is based on associations or connections. Objects or phenomena that are connected in reality are also connected in human memory. Having encountered one of these objects, we can, by association, remember another one associated with it. To remember something means to connect the memorization with what is already known, to form an association. From a physiological point of view, an association is a temporary neural connection. There are two types of associations: simple and complex. Three types of associations are considered simple: by contiguity, by similarity and by contrast.

Associations by contiguity combine two phenomena related in time or space.

Associations by similarity connect two phenomena that have similar features: when one is mentioned, the other is remembered. Associations rely on the similarity of neural connections that are evoked in our brain by two objects.

Associations by contrast connect two opposite phenomena. This is facilitated by the fact that in practical activity these opposite objects (organization and laxity, responsibility and irresponsibility, health and illness, sociability and isolation, etc.) are usually juxtaposed and compared, which leads to the formation of corresponding neural connections.

In addition to these types, there are complex associations - semantic ones. They connect two phenomena that in reality are constantly connected: part and whole, genus and species, cause and effect. These associations are the basis of our knowledge.

It is generally accepted that the formation of connections between different ideas is determined not by what the memorized material itself is, but primarily by what the subject does with it. That is, the activity of the individual is the main factor determining (determining) the formation of all mental processes, including memory processes.

22. Types of memory

Let's look at the main types of memory.

Involuntary memory (information is remembered by itself without special memorization, but in the course of performing an activity, in the course of working on information). Strongly developed in childhood, weakens in adults.

Voluntary memory (information is remembered purposefully, using special techniques). The efficiency of random memory depends on:

From the goals of memorization (how firmly, for how long a person wants to remember). If the goal is to learn in order to pass an exam, then soon after the exam a lot will be forgotten; if the goal is to learn for a long time, for future professional activity, then little information is forgotten.

From learning techniques. Learning techniques:

mechanical verbatim repetition - mechanical memory works, a lot of effort and time are spent, and the results are poor. Rote memory is memory based on repeating material without understanding it;
logical retelling, which includes: logical comprehension of the material, systematization, highlighting the main logical components of information, retelling in your own words - logical memory (semantic) works - a type of memory based on the establishment of semantic connections in the memorized material. The efficiency of logical memory is 20 times higher than that of mechanical memory;
figurative memorization techniques (translation of information into images, graphs, diagrams, pictures) – figurative memory works. Figurative memory is of different types: visual, auditory, motor-motor, gustatory, tactile, olfactory, emotional;
mnemonic memorization techniques (special techniques to facilitate memorization).

There are also short-term memory, long-term memory, operational memory, and intermediate memory. Any information first enters short-term memory, which ensures that information presented once is remembered for a short time (5-7 minutes), after which the information can be completely forgotten or transferred to long-term memory, but subject to repetition of information 1-2 times. Short-term memory (SM) is limited in volume; with a single presentation, an average of 7 + 2 fits into the SM. This is the magic formula for human memory, i.e. on average, a person can remember from 5 to 9 words, numbers, figures, figures, pictures, pieces of information from one time.

Long-term memory ensures long-term storage of information: there are two types: 1) DP with conscious access (i.e. a person can voluntarily retrieve and remember the necessary information); 2) DP is closed (a person in natural conditions does not have access to it, but only through hypnosis, when irritating parts of the brain, can he gain access to it and update in all details images, experiences, pictures of a person’s entire life).

Working memory is a type of memory that manifests itself during the performance of a certain activity, serving this activity by storing information coming from both the CP and the DP necessary to perform the current activity.

Intermediate memory - ensures the retention of information for several hours, accumulates information during the day, and the time of night sleep is allocated by the body to clear intermediate memory and categorize information accumulated over the past day, transferring it to long-term memory. At the end of sleep, intermediate memory is again ready to receive new information. In a person who sleeps less than three hours a day, intermediate memory does not have time to be cleared, as a result, the performance of mental and computational operations is disrupted, attention and short-term memory decrease, and errors appear in speech and actions.

23. Forgetting

Forgetting is a natural process. Like retention and memorization, it is selective. the physiological basis of forgetting is the inhibition of temporary connections. What is forgotten first of all is what is not vital for a person. important, does not arouse his interest, does not meet his needs.

Forgetting can be complete or partial, long-term or temporary. In case of complete forgetting, the fixed material is not only not reproduced, but also not recognized. Partial forgetting of material occurs when a person does not reproduce it all or with errors, as well as when he learns it, but cannot reproduce it. Physiologists explain temporary forgetting by inhibition of temporary nerve connections, complete forgetting by their extinction.

The process of forgetting proceeds unevenly: at first quickly, then more slowly. During the first five days after memorization, forgetting occurs faster than in the next five days. Studies of the forgetting process have also revealed one interesting feature: the most complete and accurate reproduction of complex and extensive material usually occurs not immediately after memorization, but 2-3 days later. This enhanced delayed recall is called reminiscence.

To reduce forgetting, it is necessary: 1) understanding, comprehension of information (mechanically learned, but not fully understood information is forgotten quickly and almost completely - curve 1 on the graph); 2) repetition of information (the first repetition is necessary 40 minutes after memorization, since after an hour only 50% of the mechanically memorized information remains in the memory). It is necessary to repeat more often in the first days after memorization, since on these days the losses from forgetting are maximum. It’s better this way: on the first day - 2-3 repetitions, on the second day - 1-2 repetitions, on the third-seventh day one repetition, then one repetition with an interval of 7-10 days. Remember that 30 repetitions over the course of a month is more effective than 100 repetitions per day. Therefore, systematic, without overload, studying, memorizing in small portions throughout the semester with periodic repetitions after 10 days is much more effective than concentrated memorization of a large amount of information in a short session, causing mental and mental overload and almost complete forgetting of information a week after the session.

Forgetting largely depends on the nature of the activity immediately preceding and occurring after memorization. The negative influence of activity preceding memorization is called projective inhibition. The negative influence of the activity following memorization is called retroactive inhibition; it is especially pronounced in cases where, after memorization, an activity similar to it is performed or if this activity requires significant effort.