Egypt, like any other great country, and at the time of its dawn a world power, developed in several stages. Such a powerful and developed state has contributed to the world cultural heritage, relating not only to architecture, but also to writing, literature and even mathematics, astronomy and medicine. The ancient Egyptians left many traces for archaeologists, thanks to which today it is possible to recreate an approximate picture of life in that period.
Life of the people
Everyday life speaks very eloquently about the culture of a people in a given period. It is known that the Egyptians paid a lot of attention to their own appearance. Children had their hair shaved until they were 12 years old. By this age, boys were circumcised. Men got rid of any vegetation on their bodies and carefully monitored their own cleanliness. Even in everyday life, women applied makeup, tinting their eyelids with malachite powder. Eyes were lined black by both men and women.Due to the difficult geographical location, the Egyptians had to work hard to create adequate living conditions. Their daily diet consisted mainly of fruits and vegetables, as well as bread and beer.
Architecture and art
Ancient Egyptian architectural monuments still conceal many mysteries that are unsolvable until now. today. World-famous temples, sculptures and pyramids make the Egyptians one of the greatest builders and architects in all of human history. The monumental tombs of the pharaohs or pyramids are one of the 7 wonders of the world and the only one surviving.In addition to the pyramids, ancient Egyptian temples deserve special attention. The dwellings of the gods, created by Egyptian architects, are poorly preserved, but today archaeologists have the opportunity to study the ruins of the temples of Amun Ra, Hatshepsup, Ramesses III. The temples are complex complexes of huge rooms and spacious courtyards. The size of the temples is impressive. Against the backdrop of giant buildings, palm trees appear as small reeds, and the area allocated for the temple complex is comparable to the size of large settlements. For example, 100 people can fit on top of one column. The temples contained countless statues, figurines depicting sphinxes, gods, reigning pharaohs and other things. They were made of both stone and bronze.
Another evidence of the skill of Egyptian architects are the palaces of the pharaohs. They were not inferior in size to pyramids and temples. Today the ruins of Akhenaten's palace remain.
Writing and language
The language and writing of ancient Egypt developed throughout the existence of the people and the state. Writing went through a long stage of formation, and thanks to the fact that the Egyptians wrote on stone, the path of language formation can be traced.It is believed that writing arose in Egypt in the 4th millennium BC. e. It appeared on the basis of a drawing letter. Closer to the 2nd century BC. e. The drawings began to be simplified and became known as hieroglyphs. At this point, there were no more than 700 widely used hieroglyphs. They were depicted not only on stones. Other materials for writing them were papyrus, clay shards and wooden tablets.
Gradually, 21 simple signs were identified. They conveyed consonant sounds and represented the alphabet familiar to modern man. Based on these signs, the writing of neighboring states began to develop. However, the Egyptian script itself did not change. Scribes preferred traditional way letters.
Literature
Developed writing contributed to the preservation and enrichment of Egyptian literature, the oldest in the world. Thanks to hieroglyphic writing, works could have a diverse context. Oral folk art has reached us in the form of several songs, for example, the song of a cattle driver, parables or sayings.In the 4th millennium, some literary genres began to take shape, for example, biographies of nobles, didactic texts or poetic works. Later, with the development of literature, works were created that were included in the treasury of world literature, for example, “The Tale of Sinuhet.”
Much attention in Egyptian literature is paid to the didactic genre. These works resemble prophecies. One of the oldest works of the didactic genre is “The Teachings of Ptahhotep”. The texts of the sages who warned the people against non-compliance with the rules prescribed by the gods can also be attributed to this genre.
Some folk tales were carefully processed, turning into real masterpieces. Many of them had a significant impact on world literature. These tales include “Pharaoh Khufu and the Sorcerers,” “The Tale of Truth and Falsehood,” and “The Tale of the Castaway.”
African by continent of origin, Egyptian culture acquired its unique face of the “era of the pharaohs” in the fourth millennium BC. in the spaces of the southern and eastern Mediterranean, i.e. in Africa and Eurasia. The Egyptians considered their civilization to be created by the gods. Ptah created all things and divine words, gave birth to gods, created cities, created sanctuaries and placed gods there, created their bodies for the sake of pacifying their hearts. The creator gods destroy the original chaos, create society and restore universal harmony. Maat is the central concept of Egyptian ethics. Order is understood as law and order, and gods and pharaohs as founders of laws and rulers. Hieroglyphic, i.e. sacred, the letter comes from the god of wisdom Thoth, Ptah was considered the creator of arts and crafts. Temples became the basis of the “houses of life” in which the written spiritual life of the Egyptians was carried out. Apparently, in connection with the cult of the pharaoh as a god during life and after death, the construction of pyramids is connected, which became a controversial symbol of Egyptian culture: on the one hand, a wonder of the world, on the other, an example of the despotism of kings who doomed the people to untold suffering during the construction of tombs. During the period of the fifth dynasty, the growth of the ethical element in the context of the religious culture of the Egyptians becomes noticeable: merits in earthly life can be assessed as pleasing to the pharaoh and the gods in this and posthumous life. The origins of solar monotheism, characteristic of
Egyptian religion, see in early period culture. Against the background of polytheism, in particular, the Memphis concept of a single Ptah, who created the gods and the world by the power of his word, arose. The idea of prophecy about the end of the world based on the grave disasters experienced can be traced in the famous “Sayings of Ipuwer”. In the era of the dawn of the Middle Kingdom (XXII - XVIII centuries BC), the idea of posthumous (afterlife) reward took shape, including enlightenment and pacification of the heart, indicating a deepening of moral quests. She is opposed by repressed ideas about the afterlife as a country of eternal sleep, darkness without water, air and the joys of love. With a call to celebrate a wonderful day, as well as a reminder that none of the dead took their property into another world and returned from there, lovers of the tangible joys of earthly existence expressed themselves in the “Harper’s Song.”
The Middle Kingdom is considered classical period Egyptian culture. At this time, the Egyptian language (hieroglyphic writing) was formed, mainly for religious and cult purposes. Cursive writing (hieratic writing) is developing, indicating the rise of economic life. Architectural forms are being rethought, combining a pyramid and a rock tomb. The pyramids are more modest in size and technique, but the irrigation systems are grandiose. The mortuary temple, called the labyrinth by the Greeks (from the Greek pronunciation of the name of the pharaoh), captured the imagination of Herodotus, who believed that the temple surpassed not only all Greek structures combined, but also the pyramids themselves. The labyrinth, which has not survived, became a symbol of the prosperity and unity of the country during the Middle Kingdom era. From this era came the first mathematical and medical texts containing theory (mainly magic) and practical knowledge, in particular about blood vessels and the brain. From the Middle Kingdom, the oldest record of the size of the country, an inventory of the constellations, and the world's first prototype of an encyclopedia, found in the library of the tomb, have been preserved. Egyptian papi
The Russian library included religious, scientific, didactic, fiction literature, as well as records of folklore,
Having survived the period of Hyksos rule, Egyptian culture maintained its continuity and was revived in the New Kingdom. During the New Kingdom period (1580-1085 BC), Egypt assumed a dominant position in the Eastern Mediterranean. Egypt's position as a world power creates a majestic style in the culture. Egyptian culture spread in Africa and Asia, but to an even greater extent it turned out to be able to flexibly use Asian elements of culture and melt them into its own without changing its specific appearance. The era of the New Kingdom is especially notable for the construction of temples and the further improvement of the art of relief, painting, and jewelry. The literature of the period is enriched with new genres. The texts revive the motifs of military victories, depict feasts, solemn ceremonies, expeditions, and sacrifices to the gods. Against the background of stability and prosperity, the mysterious revolution of Amenhotep IV seems unexpected. The reformer pharaoh breaks with traditional Egyptian polytheism and the status of priesthood by establishing the cult of the solar disk - Aten. Pharaoh calls himself Akhenaten - pleasing to Aten, he becomes the only god on earth, representing the one and only sun god. A new capital, Akhetaten, is being built, and former cults are being destroyed. After the death of the reformer pharaoh, his innovations are eradicated, even his image is destroyed. Akhenaten’s religious reform, fragments of which became known relatively recently, is an exceptional phenomenon in the history of Eastern culture. On the one hand, Akhenaten cleared the myth and brought to its logical conclusion the solar monotheism of Egyptian culture, which emerged during the era of the Old Kingdom. On the other hand, the pharaoh, having proclaimed himself essentially the only god, ignored the thousand-year-old traditions of the cult of Ra and the worldview of the Egyptians, enduring
further periods of unrest and domination of the Hyksos foreigners. The mystery of the reform deepens thanks to information about the art of this era: it becomes realistic, multi-colored, for the first time secular images of the pharaoh and his family appear, depicted without grotesque in an everyday setting. The love lyrics of Egypt, as well as the realistic sculptural portrait, differ significantly from the traditionally sacred art of the Ancient East. The culture of the New Kingdom of the decline era reflects the deepening of religious feeling, the complication of magical knowledge and theology, attempts to radically transform the cult and worldview based on traditional ideas. In the “Book of the Dead,” a chapter appears with the idea of a moral afterlife judgment; in other texts, motifs of religious repentance are heard, and the importance of personal piety grows. At the same time, the unofficial life of the king and his entourage, mundane images of gods are depicted, and gigantic temples and majestic statues of pharaohs are built. The greatness and decline of the empire coexist in indissoluble unity.
With the decline of Egyptian civilization new strength Its most ancient features appeared as a result of the conscious desire of the Egyptians to defend their existence. The accelerating processes of interaction and assimilation of cultures give rise to archaization. The cultural center of the country becomes Sais, the center of the cult of the warrior goddess Neit, revered as the mother of the gods in ancient times. The struggle for the purification of culture, an attempt to return to an idealized antiquity, manifested itself in the restoration of ancient state titles and positions, the revival of former ideals in art, literature, counteraction to borrowings in language, and the strengthening of the cult of animals. In the images of this period there is a mixture of styles, and syncretism in religion intensifies. At the same time, Greek settlements appeared on the territory of the country, which played a significant role in Egyptian-Greek syncretism and the spread of Egyptian culture outside Egypt. The loss of political independence led to a sharp increase in the share
representatives of other cultures in the country's population and the movement of a significant part of the Egyptians within the boundaries of one or another empire that included Egypt in its composition. Since the Sais period, the successor to the New Egyptian - the Demotic language - has become the official language of Egypt. Originating during the period of Persian rule, it includes borrowings from the Aramaic language common in the empire. The Persians were tolerant of Egyptian culture, supporting its traditions. Demotic literature continued to exist until the conquest of Egypt by the Romans. Instability political life caused a wave of unprecedented passion for mysticism, prophets, and led to increased apocalyptic sentiments. The construction of temples has stopped, verified forms are used and artistic techniques in art and literature. This does not mean that Egyptian culture descends to a primitive level. Even in the era of its decline, Egypt remained a source and model for the cultures of neighboring peoples, deservedly revered for its mystical experience and unique knowledge.
It is no coincidence that so many correspondences are found between the texts of the Bible and Egyptian sources. Examples of Egyptian religious culture helped ministers of other faiths improve their cult and rethink their own ethical, religious and mythological heritage. Egyptian medicine was of particular importance to neighboring peoples. Her achievements, primarily in surgery, were valued by the nobility, and the fame of her representatives long outlived them. In medieval manuscripts of the Christian West and Muslim East there were many recipes and ideas from the heritage of Egyptian healers and magicians. Long before ancient civilization, deep practical knowledge in mathematics and astronomy was formulated in Egypt. Among them: determination of the area of a circle and the volume of a truncated pyramid, the solar calendar and the division of the day into 24 hours, signs of the zodiac, etc. Egyptian norms of law and public administration were adopted to varying degrees in the states of the Achaemenids, Sassanids, as well as by the Hellenes, Romans, visane
Tians, Russians. Egypt became a place of study for prominent thinkers of Greece: ancient sources claim that Solon, Thales, Pythagoras and other cultural figures visited Egypt. Egyptian art as a whole, with its monumental architecture and static sculpture, was adopted and reinterpreted in the Cretan-Mycenaean culture of Greece; individual elements of Egyptian culture can be traced in the art of the Middle East. Through the influence of ancient and oriental culture some features of Egyptian art were subsequently adopted in Europe. The birthplace of prophetic writings and didactics, fables, historical narrative, fairy tales and love lyrics, Egypt generously nourished the literature of neighboring peoples. Researchers believe that the alphabetic writing of Egyptian culture was adopted by the Phoenicians and through them by Europeans, and influenced the Sinai and Meroitic (African) writing. Many Egyptian words penetrated into European languages through Greek, Coptic, and Arabic.
Egyptian culture flourished as part of the Hellenistic culture. The temples of Ptolemaic Egypt are turning into inexhaustible archives of knowledge, faith, and taste. Literary, philosophical and religious-magical texts are hastily translated into Greek. The Egyptian religion with its idea of immortality and the coming of the Messiah - the deliverer from foreign yoke - attracted the Greco-Roman world in an era of crisis. On the streets of Rome, magnificent religious festivities are held in honor of Isis, the deliverer of the world. Christianity, which replaced the Greco-Egyptian culture, uses mysticism born in Egypt, a religious text refined over centuries, and desert living. The culture of Ancient Egypt lives in the culture of Egyptian Coptic Christians and entered the culture of Islamic Egypt. The culture of Ancient Egypt, initially attributed to its own creative achievements, or completely denied in many cultures of neighboring peoples, is today considered by all Egyptians, by all humanity, as an integral part of the spiritual tradition.
Science knows little about the origins of the ancient Egyptians. Some scientists - Egyptologists - consider them to come from Asia. This, in their opinion, is evidenced by the language belonging to the Semitic-Hamitic group, as well as character traits typical of Asians or Europeans, but not of the Negroid race:
perseverance, desire for originality and initiative. Others believe that the original inhabitants of Egypt are relatives of the black peoples. This is indicated by the widespread cult of the dead, fetishism and animal worship among the Egyptians. One way or another, but by the 4th millennium BC. e. In the Nile Valley, a stable Egyptian nation was formed and the first state formations arose.
Egypt became the first state on Earth, the first great powerful power, the first empire claiming world domination. It was a strong state in which the people were completely subordinate to the ruling class. The basic principles on which the supreme power in Egypt rested were inviolability and incomprehensibility.
Ancient Egypt
Pharaoh cult
The head of the state was the pharaoh. He had absolute power in the country: all of Egypt with its colossal natural, land, material, labor resources was considered the property of the pharaoh. It is no coincidence that the concept of “house of the pharaoh” - (nome) coincided with the concept of the state.
Religion in Ancient Egypt demanded unquestioning obedience to the pharaoh, otherwise a person would face terrible disasters during life and after death. It seemed to the Egyptians that only the gods could grant them such unlimited power as the pharaohs enjoyed. This is how the idea of the divinity of the pharaoh was formed in Egypt - he was recognized as the son of god in the flesh. Both ordinary people and noble nobles prostrated themselves before the pharaoh and kissed the footprints of his feet. Pharaoh's permission to kiss his sandal was considered a great favor. The deification of the pharaohs occupied a central place in the religious culture of Egypt.
The religion of Ancient Egypt was a complex layering of beliefs that arose at different times and in different places. The ancient Egyptians worshiped many
supreme gods. Almost all gods had different names, and some even had different names at different times of the day. Thus, the main god of Egypt - the god of the Sun as the “Rising Sun” was called Khepri, or Kheprer, as the “Sun at the zenith” - Ra, as the “Sun before sunset” - Atum. It is difficult to say how many gods the Egyptians created and worshiped; some researchers suggest that the number was in the hundreds and thousands.
The gods were the personification of various natural phenomena and at the same time phenomena of social order. One of the most important gods was Ptah - the god of water, earth and the world mind, the creator of all things. It was believed that he carried the idea of the creation of the world in his heart and gave life to it with the movement of his tongue - with his word. Ptah was revered as the patron of arts and crafts. One of the few Ptah was depicted only in human form. As the most ancient of the gods, Ptah was known throughout Egypt, but was especially revered in Memphis.
The priests of other cities saw the emergence of the world differently. They taught that first there was the god Nun - the primeval water chaos. From him arose the god Atum, who later turned into Ra. From Atum-Ra arose the first pair of gods - the god of air Shu and his wife, the goddess of humidity Tefnut. From them were born Geb, the god of the Earth, and Nut, the goddess of the sky, who, in turn, gave birth to Osiris, Isis, Set and Nephthys. These were the most important and primordial gods, from whom all other deities and people originated.
Osiris was worshiped as the god of dying and resurrecting nature. Osiris was the embodiment of goodness and was usually called " good god" The wife and sister of Osiris was Isis (Isis) - the goddess of fertility, water and wind, magic and navigation. She personified marital fidelity and motherhood. Isis was usually depicted as a woman with the head or horns of a cow. The son of Isis and Osiris - the god Horus, the god of the Sun, conquering the forces of darkness, was revered in the guise of a Falcon.
Egyptian god Sebek
The myth of Osiris and Horus occupied an important place in the religious beliefs of the Egyptians. According to myth, Osiris was once the king of Egypt. It was he who taught the Egyptians how to cultivate the land. He was killed by his brother, the evil Set, the god of the desert and dry winds. Horus challenged Set to a duel and defeated him, and after that he resurrected Osiris, allowing him to swallow his eye. However, the resurrected Osiris did not return to earth, but became the king of the dead. Horus became his deputy on earth, the king of the living.
In addition to these gods, everywhere in all areas of Ancient Egypt they worshiped the goddess of truth and order Maat, the goddess of the sky, love and fun Hathor, the god of the Moon and writing Thoth. Thoth was credited with the invention of writing and was considered the divine secretary of the heavenly council under the god Ra. Those studying the account also asked him for help.
The Egyptians recognized the presence of the divine principle “in everything that is on land, in water and in the air.” Some animals, plants, and objects were revered as embodiments of deity. The Egyptians worshiped cats, snakes, crocodiles, rams, dung beetles - scarabs and many other living creatures, considering them their gods.
Religious ceremonies were often furnished with extraordinary pomp. For example, the cult of bulls was the richest and most solemn cult ever bestowed upon an animal. The Apis bull was considered the “earthly incarnation” and “servant” of the god Ptah, a symbol of fertility.
Scarab
The Apis bull lived in a special sacred stable at the temple, where he was looked after by priests trained for this purpose. Apis had a harem of cows that were carefully selected for him. The bull lived in complete peace and contentment and his only duty was to demonstrate himself to the believers from time to time. When the bull died, his body was embalmed and buried in a complex ritual in front of a huge crowd of people. The search for a successor like him - the “newborn Apis” - was an extremely difficult matter: Only a black bull, with a white spot on the forehead in the shape of a triangle, with a growth under the tongue in the shape of a scarab beetle, was recognized as Apis. There were about thirty such signs in total.
The Egyptians also worshiped trees and plants, of which they especially singled out the lotus. They believed that lotus flowers were already in primeval chaos, and it was from the lotus flower that the Sun God Ra emerged. The soil and its fertile natural force were also considered God. Of inorganic nature, pointed stones were most revered. By analogy with such stones, obelisks began to be built.
Currently, the opinion has been expressed, and many Egyptologists adhere to it, that the priests considered all the varied and numerous deities of the Egyptian temples to be the incarnation of the Supreme Being, the one God, immortal, eternal, invisible and incomprehensible in its essence, who generates itself in the infinity of the Universe. While the ancient Egyptians worshiped many gods, they actually worshiped one secret God, who had neither name nor image. The Egyptian priests defined it as follows: “He who exists on his own,” “The root cause of all life,” “Father of fathers,” “Mother of mothers.” This Supreme Being - the creator of the Universe - is one in his essence, but not one in his incarnation; he generates himself in himself and at the same time is the father, mother and son of God, without leaving God. Thus, the concept of the Trinity was formulated in Egypt, which would later be adopted by Christianity. Scholars who express these views believe that the priests in ancient Egypt expressed the attributes of the one God and his various incarnations in the form of sensory representations in order to facilitate the people's faith.
Akhenaten's religious reform
The reality of Egyptian polytheism did not contribute in any way to the centralization of the state, the subjugation of the tribes conquered by Egypt, or the strengthening of central power. Lived in the 14th century. BC e. Pharaoh
Amenhotep IV tried to carry out religious reforms with the aim of establishing monotheism. He introduced a new state cult, declaring the solar disk under the name of the god Aten as the true deity. He made the city of Akhetanon (the modern settlement of El-Amara) the capital of the state and himself took the name Akhenaten, which meant “pleasing to the god Aten.”
He tried to break the power of the old priesthood and the old nobility, which had increased by this time: the cults of all other gods were abolished, their temples were closed, and temple property was confiscated. However, Akhenaten's reforms caused resistance from a strong and numerous layer of Egyptian priests and turned out to be short-lived. Although the cult of the new god was associated with the traditional cult of the sun, it was not accepted. The successors of the innovative pharaoh were unable to carry out his line with any confidence and were soon forced to make reconciliation with the priesthood. The cults of the old gods were restored, and the position of the local priesthood strengthened again.
Mortuary cult
The most important feature of the religion and culture of Ancient Egypt was a protest against death, which the Egyptians considered an “abnormality.” The Egyptians believed in the immortality of the soul - this was the main doctrine of the Egyptian religion. The passionate desire for immortality determined the entire worldview of the Egyptians, the entire religious thought of Egyptian society. It is believed that in no other civilization has this protest against death found such a vivid, concrete and complete expression as in Egypt. The desire for immortality became the basis for the emergence of a funeral cult, which played an extremely large role in the history of Ancient Egypt - and not only religious and cultural, but also political, economic and military. It was on the basis of the Egyptians’ disagreement with the inevitability of death that a creed was born according to which death does not mean the end, a wonderful life can be extended forever, and the deceased can be resurrected.
According to the religious beliefs of the Egyptians, each person had several important characteristics, including Sokh
Culture of Ancient Egypt
The body of a man, Shunt is his shadow, Ren is his name, Ah is his ghost, Ba is the manifestation of the essence. The leading role was played by Ka - the soul of man, which is his immortal double.
Journey to the other world
It was Ka who had to reconnect with his body in order for the deceased to be resurrected. With death, the Egyptians believed, only the material basis of a person perishes. Death does not affect the immaterial basis; the soul will live forever if the necessary conditions are created for this.
The Egyptians considered the preservation of the body of the deceased to be the main condition for the afterlife. This concern led to the emergence of the art of making mummies. In order to prolong life after death, it was important to take care of the construction of a special tomb for the body: the Egyptians believed that it was most convenient for an immortal but fragile soul to return to its former and henceforth also eternal body inside a powerful pyramid protected from prying eyes. Seventy days after death, provided that he was buried correctly, in compliance with all prescribed rituals, the deceased rose to a new life and could go to the Land of Eternity.
The path to the next world seemed to the Egyptians to be a real obstacle course, where the danger of a second death lurked at every step. Detailed information about this path is contained in the “Book of the Dead”, “The Book of Gates”, “The Book of Underground Caves”, “The Book of What is in the Other World”, which list the insidious traps that awaited the dead and give detailed tips on how to avoid them. These books contain hymns that should be sung before the gods in order to gain their favor, instructions are given on how to kill underground crocodiles and snakes, and how to avoid getting caught in the nets of underground fishermen. There were also magic spells with which the deceased could neutralize his enemies.
It was assumed that if this path was successfully completed, then the Egyptian found himself in the palace of both truths, in the middle of which Osiris himself sat on the throne, surrounded by other gods. Here the trial of the deceased took place. To do this, the heart of the deceased was placed on one bowl of special scales, and the ostrich feather of the goddess of truth and justice, Maat, on the other. Each of the gods - and there were more than 40 of them - asked a question, the deceased answered, and the scales controlled the correctness of the answer. The list of questions and answers was, in fact, a set of life rules Egyptians; the answers always had to be negative. “I did not harm people,” the righteous Egyptian had to say, “I did not torture animals,” “I did not blaspheme,” “I did not commit violence against the poor,” “I did not kill anyone,” “I did not to whom I have not sent murderers,” “I am clean.”
After weighing all the pros and cons, Osiris pronounced his verdict. In case of an unfavorable decision, the deceased had to end his existence in the womb of the terrible monster Amelite - the Devourer - a creature with the body of a hyena and a hippopotamus, a lion's mane and the mouth of a crocodile. If the decision was favorable, the deceased could enter the kingdom of Osiris.
The kingdom of Osiris, however, according to the ideas of the ancient Egyptians, was not a paradise at all: terrible lions, snakes, scorpions, and crocodiles lived there; Moreover, the kingdom of Osiris did not free one from the need to work. True, the work for the deceased could be done by his slave or servant - their functions were performed by figurines that were placed in the grave. But if the deceased did not manage to happily avoid danger and died, then this secondary death was already final in the eyes of the Egyptians - its consequence was the complete non-existence of a person.
The efforts of the Egyptians were thus aimed at making life after death long, safe and happy: they took care of funeral utensils, sacrifices, and these concerns led to the fact that the life of an Egyptian consisted of preparations for death. They often paid less attention to their earthly dwellings than to their tombs.
Pyramids
The most important feature of ancient Egyptian culture was the construction of pyramids. In the III--II millennium BC. e. both pyramids and temples - buildings for the gods - were built of stone.
The construction of pyramids - essentially an unproductive expense - was ruinous for the state's economy, depleted the treasury, and required enormous effort and numerous sacrifices on the part of the population. History, as we know, does not tolerate subjunctive mood, but it can be assumed that if the Egyptians had built roads rather than pyramids with the same tenacity and dedication, Egypt would have developed more dynamically.
The pyramids were built for the pharaohs and for the nobility, although according to the beliefs of the Egyptian priests, every person, and not just a king or nobleman, had eternal life force. However, the bodies of the poor were not embalmed or placed in tombs, but were wrapped in mats and dumped in heaps on the outskirts of cemeteries. In the hot and dry climate of Egypt, these bodies mummified naturally, without human effort, and could be preserved in the sands for a very long time - many centuries. But in any case, the pyramids testified to the extremely strong inequality of people in Egyptian society.
Archaeologists have counted about a hundred pyramids, but not all of them have survived to this day. Some of the pyramids were destroyed already in ancient times. The earliest of the Egyptian pyramids is the pyramid of Pharaoh Djoser, erected about 5 thousand years ago. It is stepped and rises like a staircase to heaven. Its decoration uses the light-and-shadow contrast of the projections and niches. This pyramid was conceived and implemented by the chief royal architect named Imhotep. Subsequent generations the Egyptians revered him as a great architect, sage and magician. He was deified and libations were poured in his honor before other construction work began.
Pyramid of Cheops in Giza
The most famous and largest in size is the pyramid of Pharaoh Cheops in Giza. It is known that only the road to the future construction site took 10 years, and the pyramid itself took more than 20 years to build; These jobs employed a huge number of people—hundreds of thousands. The dimensions of the pyramid are such that any European cathedral could easily fit inside: its height was 146.6 m, and its area was about 55 thousand square meters. m. The Pyramid of Cheops is made of giant limestone stones, and the weight of each block is approximately 2-3 tons. Scientists have calculated how many stones should have been used to build this pyramid - 2,300,000. The construction art of the ancient masters was amazing: the stones of the pyramid are still fitted so tightly to each other that it is impossible to even insert a needle between them. From the outside, the entire Cheops pyramid was lined with beautifully polished limestone slabs; inside there were several long inclined corridors with a complex system of passages and exits. Their purpose is to confuse the robber if he managed to get inside the structure.
The Pyramid of Cheops, together with the other pyramids rising in Giza - Khafre and Miherin, is called one of the seven wonders of the world. Around the pyramids of the great pharaohs there are many tombs that form an entire city with its own streets and crossroads.
In the 2nd millennium BC. e. pyramids began to be built from brick rather than stone - it was a little less ruinous, and the pyramids themselves were becoming smaller. By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. deep and carefully hidden hiding places from prying eyes began to be allocated for the tombs of the pharaohs. However, these caches were robbed as often as the pyramids. The looting of the tombs of the pharaohs was characteristic of all periods of ancient Egyptian history, although the Egyptians idolized and feared their pharaohs. The tombs of later times are the funeral temple of Pharaoh Mentuhotep I, built in the form of a rock tomb, and erected in the 15th century. BC e. in the Deir ad-Bahri valley on three rocky terraces is the funeral temple of Queen Hatshepsut (more than 200 sculptures were used to decorate it).
art
The fine and monumental art of Egypt bore the stamp of Egyptian culture as a whole.
The Egyptians erected tall, thin obelisks in front of temples and palaces. Thus, the symbol of the god Ra was a tall, tapering stone obelisk, the top of which was covered with copper. Obelisks were often also covered with hieroglyphs 11 Hieroglyph is a pictorial symbolic writing - the most important component of the culture of Ancient Egypt.. Subsequently, the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing turned into syllabic writing (which happened with the Sumerian writing and which never happened with the Chinese writing).
Sphinxes were also placed in front of mortuary temples: a stone image of a creature with the head of a man and the body of a lion. The head of the sphinx represented the pharaoh, and the sphinx as a whole personified the wisdom, mystery and strength of the Egyptian ruler.
Sphinx head
The largest of all ancient Egyptian sphinxes was made in the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. - he still guards the pyramid of Khafre. The Sphinx is carved from solid rock: its head is 30 times larger than a human one, and its body length reaches 57 m. In the 16th century. BC e. a temple was built between his front paws. The supernatural power that was felt in the sphinx
instilled fear in people. “Father of Trembling” - that’s what this statue was called.
Other remarkable monuments of ancient Egyptian art that are now widely known throughout the world are the statue of Pharaoh Amenemhet III, the stele of the nobleman Hunen, and the head of Pharaoh Senusret III. A masterpiece of ancient Egyptian visual arts II millennium BC e. art historians consider the relief depicting Pharaoh Tutankhamun with his young wife in the garden, made on the lid of the casket.
Confirmation high culture Egypt 1st millennium BC e. (XIV century BC) is a sculptural portrait of the wife of Amenhotep IV - Nefertiti (ancient Egyptian - the beauty is coming) - one of the most beautiful female images in the history of mankind.
The fine arts of Ancient Egypt were distinguished by bright and pure colors. Architectural structures, sphinxes, sculptures, figurines, and reliefs were painted. The paintings and reliefs that covered the walls of the tombs reproduced in detail detailed pictures of prosperous life in kingdom of the dead, everyday earthly life.
The sculptural portrait received great development. The Egyptians believed that portrait statues, acting as doubles of the dead, served as the seat of their souls. Certain types of portrait statues were developed - a man was usually depicted at the age of 40-50 years - in the prime of his life, and a woman - at the age of 20-25 years. The social position of a person was accurately conveyed.
Nefertiti
The artists of Ancient Egypt were characterized by a sense of the beauty of life and nature. Architects, sculptors, and painters were distinguished by a subtle sense of harmony and a holistic view of the world. This was expressed, in particular, in the inherent desire for synthesis in Egyptian culture - the creation of a single architectural ensemble in which all types of fine art would take place. The ancient architects of Egypt were able to perfectly take into account the peculiarities of the geographical environment and the nature of lighting.
Decorative and applied arts reached a high level in Egypt. Its magnificent examples are vessels and dishes made of alabaster and crystal, figured toilet spoons made of wood and ivory, all kinds of jewelry - gold bracelets, necklaces and rings, decorated precious stones. These products were distinguished by their refined shapes and fine finishing.
It is significant that although Egyptian art will undergo some changes over the course of more than three thousand years, the basic canon established in it will remain unshakable. Fine and monumental art throughout the history of Ancient Egypt has always been characterized by a purely planar depiction of figures, a canonical convention in the rendering of the torso and legs, and the turn of the shoulders. The system of proportions and correspondence between the size of the entire figure and its individual elements will also be constant. The constant will be geometric decorativeness with a symmetrical distribution of the pattern, strict linearity of the composition. All the figures were motionless, imperturbable, their poses were extremely conventional, as was the coloring: the man’s body was traditionally depicted as red-brown, the woman’s body as yellow-pink, everyone’s hair was black, and their clothes were white. The manifestation of the artist’s individual will in this was strictly limited. The same convention and constancy are characteristic of monumental art. Statues and figurines had a cult purpose and their appearance - coloring and position - were determined by the corresponding norms mandatory for the sculptor.
So, from generation to generation, from millennium to millennium - the same style, the same religion, the same art. The basic idea of ancient Egyptian art changed extremely little over time. The stagnant nature of ancient Egyptian society determined a generally uniform type of ancient Egyptian culture. Its characteristic features were the consciousness of strength, the desire to preserve and increase it, the thirst for immortality. The art had a monumental character that overwhelmed the viewer.
Literature. WritingMusic
The most ancient Egyptian texts that have come down to us are prayers to the gods and household records. Earliest monuments fiction, surviving to this day, date back to the 2nd millennium BC. e.
There were probably older texts, but they have not survived. The literature of Ancient Egypt is represented by various genres - these are the teachings of kings and sages to their sons and disciples, many tales about miracles and sorcerers, stories, biographies of dignitaries, songs, spells.
One of the most abstract, abstract works of ancient Egyptian literature is “The Conversation of a Disappointed One with His Soul.” A person who has lost faith in the meaning of life begins to seek death. The soul, however, tries to dissuade him from suicide and assures him of the futility of hopes for an afterlife. The soul advises you to fully enjoy your earthly existence: “Rejoice while you are here.”
Example narrative literature 1st millennium BC e. is the “Report of Unuamon” about his journey on behalf of the Theban high priest to the Phoenician city of Byblos to obtain timber for the temple boat. Unuamon talks in detail and vividly about his misadventures, not forgetting, however, to give exciting descriptions of nature.
Emergence Egyptian writing date back to the 20th century. BC e. Peculiarities government system Egypt required significant paperwork, which contributed to the spread of writing. Despite the complexity of hieroglyphic writing, already in this ancient period not only priests, scribes and nobles were literate - the spread of literacy is evidenced by written instructions to builders, inscribed on the stones of the buildings of that time. Gradually, on the basis of the old hieroglyphic writing, cursive writing was developed, later known as hieratic writing. Then, around 700 BC. e., from the old business cursive writing a new letter appeared - demotic (folk) 11 The first ancient Egyptian inscriptions were deciphered by a French scientist J.F. Champollion(1790-1832), founder of Egyptology..
The musical culture of Egypt is one of the most ancient in the world. Music accompanied all religious ceremonies, mass celebrations and, thus, was closely connected with dance, pantomime, dramatic works, and literature. Gradually there was a division of music into cult, court and folk. These musical genres were subject to mutual influence. Musicians were highly respected in society; they were considered relatives of the pharaohs. On Egyptian frescoes of the 2nd millennium BC. e. lyres and drums were depicted, as well as harps resembling a hunter's bow in shape. Music in Ancient Egypt was called "hi" - pleasure, pleasure. Magical powers were attributed to her, and in accordance with this belief, various instruments for the ensemble were selected not according to the timbre of their sound, but according to their mystical properties. In this case, the Egyptians believed, music would be able to cure the sick, bring rain, and defeat enemies.
Science was the most important part of Egyptian culture: without scientific knowledge Normal housekeeping, construction, military affairs, and government of the country were impossible.
Mathematics developed under the influence of practical needs: due to the rising waters of the Nile, the Egyptians had to constantly measure land plots and restore their boundaries after each flood. They knew how to perform addition and subtraction, multiplication and division, calculate the capacity of a basket, the size of a heap of grain, the area of a circle, the surface of a hemisphere and a ball (this problem was solved in the 2nd millennium BC), and calculate the volume of a pyramid.
The Egyptians learned to accurately determine the timing of sowing, ripening and harvesting of grain. They created an accurate calendar based on observations of celestial bodies. The beginning of the year was the day of the rise of the brightest star - Sirius. The whole year consisted of 365 days, it was divided into three seasons, each season had four months. The Egyptians also created accurate star catalogs and star charts. In the 2nd millennium BC. e. It has been suggested that the corresponding constellations are in the sky during the day; they are invisible only because the sun appears in the sky. Around the same time, the oldest watches in human history were invented - water watches and small pocket and neck sundials.
Medicine has made significant progress. The development of medical science was facilitated by the custom of mummification of corpses, during which priests and doctors could study the anatomy of the human body and its internal organs. The doctrine of blood circulation and the heart as its main organ can be considered an achievement of ancient Egyptian medicine. The Egyptians established a connection between brain damage and dysfunction of parts of the body, such as the lower extremities. Already in the ancient period, the specialization of doctors was developed: thus, doctors were distinguished as “uterine”, ophthalmic, and dental. During excavations of tombs, a variety of surgical instruments were found, which allows us to conclude that surgery was widely developed. The Egyptians generalized and systematized their information in the field of medicine - several medical books have survived to this day, containing, however, along with completely rational recipes, many bizarre, witchcraft ones. Manuscripts of the 2nd millennium BC e. They also contained detailed instructions on how to treat wounds, fractures, etc. Medicines such as crushed donkey hoof, or “the milk of a woman who gave birth to a boy” were used.
By the 2nd millennium BC. e. include the most ancient ones that have come down to us geographic Maps- one of them gives a detailed plan of gold mines in the Eastern Desert.
Historical knowledge was accumulated. In Egypt, a list of kings has long been kept, indicating the exact dates of their reign and detailed description events that occurred during their reign.
In the 3rd millennium BC. e. At the court of the pharaoh, schools appeared in which future scribes were trained. Later, schools were created at temples, and from the 2nd millennium BC. e. - at large government agencies. The schools educated all boys between the ages of 5 and 16, and there was strict discipline and corporal punishment was common. Boys were taught reading, writing and arithmetic, gymnastic exercises, swimming, and good manners. In temple schools, boys received religious education; in addition, they studied astronomy and medicine. The children of the highest Egyptian nobility studied in military schools, the graduates of which became commanders of troops. In Egypt there was even a unique institution of higher education - the “house of life.”
In northeast Africa is the birthplace of the world's oldest civilization - Egypt. The nomadic tribes of North Africa, at a time when the Ice Age in Europe had already ended and the amount of rain began to decrease, moved to the rich and fertile Nile Valley. This happened in the 6th-5th millennium BC. e. Over time, the Egyptians, conducting long-term observations, learned to control the river and predict the strength of its flood.
4th-3rd millennium BC e., when those living in Central Europe barbarian tribes still wore animal skins and lived in caves, Egypt had already become a country with a highly developed social and political structure. Agriculture, crafts, medicine, science, architecture and art flourished in this civilization. Cities were built with comfortable houses, with drains and sewers, service and utility rooms, and in residential buildings the windows faced a green courtyard. What most amazes our contemporaries is the grandiose engineering work and colossal architectural structures of the Egyptians - pyramids, temples, sphinxes; the priests' knowledge of the laws of the harmonious unity of the world, the secrets of the laws of psychic energy and the golden ratio also remains a mystery.
The main feature of Egypt - the hot climate and rare rains - would have made Egypt not one of the cradles of civilization, but a desert, if not for the irrigation system for regulating water created and maintained by the Egyptians. To store water all year round, they built a whole network of canals, erected powerful dams, made reservoirs, built hydraulic devices along the river for irrigating fields, annually cleared canals filled with silt, repaired dams and laid high, located roads for troops traveling at any time of the year. . Such grandiose works required, along with knowledge of the basics of astronomy, land surveying and construction, excellent organization and discipline, since all work had to be completed by a certain date. The huge working army acted strictly according to plan and under a single leadership; it had to have managers to carry out specific tasks. It was created and ruled by priests who, being great scientists, keepers and continuers of the knowledge of magic, astrology, natural science, creators of spiritual culture, acquired significant power over the people and subsequently always occupied a strong position and had a huge influence on society.
Before late XVIII V. Egypt was an exotic country for Europe, which was known from the works of ancient historical writers. In 1798
Napoleon was preparing an army for a campaign in Egypt, as well as a special commission of scientists and specialists who were supposed to study the culture of Egypt. Their discovery of the “Rosetta Stone”, on which an inscription in Egyptian and ancient Greek was carved, caused a sensation. The discovery of an Egyptian text with an exact translation into ancient Greek on the Rosetta Stone gave hope for the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs. The Egyptian hieroglyphic writing was deciphered by Jean François Champollion, who established that the Egyptian hieroglyphs were not pictorial, but phonetic writing, but the difficult thing was that the Egyptian alphabet did not have vowels.
Thanks to scientists, it became possible to trace the history of Ancient Egypt and establish periodization: Early Kingdom (3200-2800 BC), Old Kingdom (2800-2250 BC), Middle Kingdom (2050-1700 BC). BC), New Kingdom (1580-1100 BC). Other periodizations are also known, but the differences between them are insignificant.
The peculiarity of Egypt was deified worship and obedience to authority, which is reflected in art and architecture as a basic feature. The concept of “power” was filled with spiritual content. Art is permeated with the idea of glorifying people involved in power. The majestic pyramids are also one of the symbols of royal worship.
Since in Egypt the pharaoh was not only a king, but also a god, everything good and bad that happened in the country was mystically associated with his name. He was personally responsible for the misfortunes that befell; ideology depended on him, and its main form was religious ideas that permeated all aspects of Egyptian life. Many Egyptian gods were subjugated a certain hierarchy, at the top of which was the main god - Ra. Many temples, the position of which was determined by the significance of the god worshiped in it, were built in Egypt. At different times, different deities were identified with the supreme and main god - Ra, the sun, sun worship has always remained central, although since ancient times each Settlement has honored its own deity - the patron and protector. Deities were represented in the form of animals, plants, objects, and heavenly bodies. At first, the god Ra was identified with the king in the form of the Falcon - Horus. (The king seemed to be the incarnation of Horus.) Then, from the 3rd millennium BC. e., the embodiment of Ra was considered Ptah, the god of the creative power of the earth, the only creator. He was depicted as an Apis bull or a man with bull horns rising above his head. All other gods were considered the creation or incarnation of Ptah. From 2700 BC e. Ra is identified with Atum, and then with Osiris, who was revered as the ruler eternal life or the god of resurrecting spring nature. Horus began to be considered the son of him and Isis.
Other gods included the god of wisdom - Thoth (with the head of an ibis), the goddess of truth and justice Maat (in the form of a woman with a feather in her head), the god Sebek (in the form of a crocodile), the god of death Anubis (in the form of a jackal), the goddess of war and destruction Sokhmet (in the form of a woman with the head of a lioness), the god of chaos Seth, etc. A huge number of Egyptian deities, their hierarchy are included in unusually complex philosophical, theological, cosmogonic and mythological concepts, without which it is impossible to understand the spiritual culture of Ancient Egypt.
The idea of immortality leaves an imprint on the meaning of life and people committed to power, and common people, in general, both on the meaning of history and on the meaning of creativity. Initially, the idea of immortality related only to the king, and then spread to everyone. Together with the funeral cult and magic, the beliefs of the Egyptians turned into an unusually powerful force through which the priests and pharaohs exercised control.
All spiritual values were formed in temples, and the latter, in turn, were not just chapels with idols of gods, but centers of spiritual and political life. In addition, the temples were developed economic units with a large amount of land, slaves, herds, shipyards, ships and even cities assigned to them in Egypt and beyond. The position of the temple was determined by the significance of the god to whom the temple was dedicated, and this depended on the political situation in the country. So, in the 21st century. BC e. In the process of the struggle for the unification of Egypt, the previously provincial small city of Thebes moved to the center of the political arena. In this regard, the role of the Theban god Amon (Amon means “hidden”) increases. And if in the Early Kingdom the capital was Heliopolis with the worship of the god Atum-Ra, then in the era of the Middle Kingdom Thebes became the capital, and Amun was identified with the sun god. He turns into a national god and is considered the king of the gods, the pharaohs are his native and beloved sons. Until the end of the history of Ancient Egypt, Amon became dominant in the hierarchy of gods. Only Amenhotep IV managed to change this cult for a short period and make Aten the supreme deity, but this happened at the end of the New Kingdom. Until this time, the pharaohs had built temples of unprecedented size and luxury for Amon, and transferred tens of thousands of slaves and enormous valuables into their possession.
The cult of Aten did not last long; Pharaoh Tutankhamun had already completely restored the greatness of Amun and made his name part of his own.
All mythology is connected with the cults of Egypt. In the Old Kingdom, the main cult was the sun god Ra. The second most important is the cult of Osiris, Isis and Horus. The cult of Osiris - the dying and resurrecting god - became the basis of the funeral cult of Egypt. The ancient Egyptians believed that in addition to physical body and the soul of Ba man still has the vital force Ka ( astral body) - a ghostly double, a second soul, a second “I”. After the death of a person, Ka moves into the physical shell of the dead body, and then the soul calmed down, for which the body was preserved by embalming or a sculptural double was created, a dwelling was erected for them - a tomb, where the body was supplied with everything necessary, scenes from the earthly life of the deceased were depicted on the walls, which It was important for the continuation of existence in the city of the dead.
In Egypt, each city of the living was accompanied by a city of the dead; they were built on different banks of the Nile. The art of mummification was well developed in Egypt. Mummies of people from different social classes were made different ways. Art in the funeral cult was given a primary role: it ensured the continuation of life after death, and therefore immortality. Therefore, the work of artists was considered a sacred act. Leading architects, sculptors, painters were high-ranking officials, they were also priests, always surrounded by honor. Individual creative freedom was not allowed, and the art of Ancient Egypt remained canonical for thousands of years. The canons maintained adherence to the golden section regime, i.e. harmonic proportion. Art in any of its manifestations had to take into account the divine relationship between the harmonious unity of the cosmic and the earthly.
Architecture first of all had to comply with this requirement. The main types of religious buildings were tombs and mortuary temples attached to them. The mastaba ("stone bench") was the earliest form of Egyptian chieftain's tomb; rectangular, it was a sarcophagus, inside of which there was a burial chamber. The mastaba served as a constructive basis for the construction of monumental tombs - step pyramids. This is the pyramid of Pharaoh Djoser in Saqqara - it reaches a height of 60 m. The final stage in the creation of the pyramids were the tombs of the pharaohs. These are the tombs of Cheops, Khafre, Mikerin in Giza. The tallest of them - the Cheops Pyramid (147 m) - was considered in ancient times one of the seven wonders of the world (it took 20 years to build). The pyramid is precisely oriented to the cardinal directions north - south. The entrance was located on the north side. Inside the pyramid there was a burial chamber and relief chambers designed to distribute pressure evenly.
Pyramids, which have excited the imagination of mankind for centuries, were built not only in Egypt, but also in other places around the globe, forming special systems. The pyramid, being both an antenna and a resonator, is a relay of certain energy flows associated with processes occurring in space, and focused, in turn, on the “energy source” inside the pyramid. When exposed to this complex and with correct interaction with human consciousness, the effect of “communication with the gods” occurred.
The pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom abandoned the construction of pyramids, and an ensemble arose in which a rock tomb was combined with a mortuary temple. The ensemble consisted of several terraces supported by columns; a small pyramid was installed on the upper terrace. Such mortuary temples were erected in Deir al-Bahri. The most famous of them are the temples of Mentuhotep I and Queen Hatshepsut. The rock temple of Ramesses II in Abu Simbel was entirely carved into the rocks; the entrance to the temple was flanked by 20-meter sculptural images of Ramesses II.
The servants of the temples, the priest-hierophants, initiated into the knowledge of the principles underlying the construction of the temple, world order and world harmony, were based primarily on knowledge, and not on faith; today it can be argued that already the ancient Egyptian priests owned the theory of the harmonious unity of the world. One of the papyri of Ancient Egypt reports that there are “Tablets” in which this knowledge is encrypted. It is assumed that the priests had knowledge of the system of proportionation norms in the “golden section” mode, but a systematic presentation of the foundations of the theory of harmony, reflecting the principles of the world order, is not set out in hieroglyphic text
The art of Ancient Egypt, of course, was not limited to temples or architecture. Egyptian sculpture is strictly canonical. In the Ancient Kingdom, certain types of statues developed: standing - the figure is tensely straightened, frontal, the head is raised high, the left leg takes a step forward, the arms are lowered and pressed to the body; sitting - hands are symmetrically placed on the knees or one arm is bent at the elbow. These types of statues were invariably repeated in the Middle and New Kingdoms, and in Late period. In this way, the sculptures express peace, power, and connection with the cosmos! But since the sculpture was closely connected with the funeral cult, it is characterized by one more feature - it is portrait. Portraits are distinguished by maximum similarity and extreme generalization. They convey timeless images of people who have reached maturity, are in the prime of life, embodying authority, detachment from worldly vanity, and high spirit.
Relief compositions occupied an important place in the design of tombs and temples. Even in the Old Kingdom, a system for their placement developed. At the entrance to the tomb, a full-length figure of the deceased was placed on the sides, then a procession of gift bearers unfolded along the walls of the corridors. The burial chamber depicted scenes from the life of the deceased. All figures were performed according to certain canons. The figure of the pharaoh was always taller than the rest, slightly shorter than the figures of dignitaries and nobles. Faces, torsos and legs were shown in profile, eyes and shoulders in front. The reliefs were always painted without gradations of shades, the figures were outlined.
Changes affected art, which tried to destroy thousand-year-old canons and rules during the time of Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV). It turned primarily to depicting a person’s mental state, his experiences and feelings. In the portrait statues of Akhenaten himself, the image is created not of an ideal pharaoh, but, first of all, of a man with characteristic individual features: an elongated oval face, a peculiar position of the head on a thin neck, rounded hips, a protruding belly, thin arms and legs. The sculptural portraits of his wife Nefertiti are striking in their combination of royalty and femininity.
The Egyptians, as in other forms of art, applied the theory of world harmony in music. Not a single holiday was complete without fiery group dances and dances, accompanied by playing musical instruments. Music played a big role in the “passions”: songs with choirs, processions and dances alternated with dramatic scenes, often recreating real pictures of life and everyday life. Favorite songs were lamentations over the dead Osiris.
Ideas about beauty were formed within the framework of canonical art; the canons depended on the understanding of proportionation in the golden ratio regime and were established by priests who knew it. All types of art in their works expressed admiration and admiration for the highest cosmic power of world harmony, therefore it is monumental, majestic, canonical. In them we see the objectification of peace, stability, silence and holiness.
Social life in Ancient Egypt was not limited to material, spiritual and artistic activity, it was organized politically and legally. The state was ruled by a pharaoh, under whose command was a huge army of officials performing the function of executive power. Ancient Egypt had a developed legal system. Most of the information that has reached us about it dates back to the beginning of the New Kingdom. Egyptian laws reflected hardly every aspect of life. Records were kept of every judgment rendered in previous cases under this law. Day-to-day control over order and the implementation of laws was the responsibility of the courts, which were obliged to protect the interests of all residents, not just the rich, and Egyptians often summoned each other to court. Each person had to defend himself, to be a lawyer. Each city had its own court, called kenbet. Judges chosen from among influential citizens traveled to rural areas. Then the courts of the upper “instance” appeared, called “courts of listeners”, which were under the supervision of the district governor. Above them were two Supreme Courts (one each for Upper and Lower Egypt), presided over by viziers.
The women of Ancient Egypt in many respects had a more privileged legal position than in other countries of the Ancient East. Although women did not hold official government positions, they enjoyed great personal freedom and had the same rights and responsibilities before the law as men. They could engage in trade, enter into contracts, act as witnesses in court and independently represent their interests. Women were also required to take an oath and were subject to the same punishments as men. In the history of Ancient Egypt, it so happened that a woman at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. was able to appear on the throne, this is the first and only female pharaoh Hatshepsut in the history of the country. She was the wife of Thutmose I, the son of Amenhotep I. As regent for her seven-year-old stepson, Hatshepsut gained real power over the entire country, returning to the grandeur and grandeur of the ancient burial places of the pharaohs in new form, sparing no expense on monumental palaces. She brought talented painters and architects closer to her person, did not continue the aggressive policy of the pharaohs who preceded her, and sought to resolve foreign policy conflicts through negotiations and other diplomatic means. Art, education and science flourished under her, but after her death, political opponents erased her name from the history of the country, but the numerous monumental monuments she made during her reign did not allow her name to disappear without a trace.
The importance of the development of education in Egypt, which was ruled by priests, should also be canceled. They divided the path to achieving truth into stages of knowledge and subordinated the process of education to this. The highest level revealed knowledge of the laws of universal harmony. The highest spiritual value in knowledge was the achievement of this truth, expressed in symbols. Keepers of knowledge transmitted laws hidden in special symbols only to those capable of perceiving them. The highest wisdom was in the essence of the trinity, marked and secured by the contour of the geometric triangle as an unchangeable spatial configuration endowed with deep functional meaning. A certain triangle was the key to any architectural structure in the golden ratio mode, it became a symbol of Ancient Egypt, and it contains the eye of the god Horus as a sign of wisdom and the light of divine knowledge.
The culture of Ancient Egypt had a strong influence on Arab and European peoples. It is no coincidence that scientists, philosophers, physicians, astronomers, mathematicians, priests and astrologers would later emphasize that they learned from the Egyptian sages.
The culture of ancient Egypt is divided into several periods: the pre-dynastic Old, Middle, New and Late Kingdoms. And lasts from the 4th millennium BC. - the time of formation and centralization of government in the state, until the 30s BC. - the reign of the last pharaoh from the Ptolemaic family () and the conquest of the Roman Empire led by Augustus (Octavian) - a descendant of Julius Caesar. During the existence of world civilization, many revolutionary discoveries have been made, the results of which we still use today.
1. Achievements of Egypt in mathematics and astronomy
The first mathematical studies were done in Egypt. The people of the Nile Delta invented decimal system calculus, knew how to divide and multiply. The value of “pi” was known, which was taken as the basis for the proportions of the great pyramid of Cheops and the tombs of other pharaohs. The Egyptians knew how to determine area and volume.
The main achievements of ancient Egypt were made in astronomy. In next to modern city The world's first zodiac circle was discovered in Luxor. Its original is kept in the Louvre Museum in Paris, but in Egypt tourists can see an exact plaster copy.
Several ancient zodiac charts have also been discovered in Egypt. It was known that the life cycle of Sirius is 1460 years, and Mars and Venus have certain phases.
The Egyptians invented the first calendar. Harvesting, which depended on the seasonal flood of the Nile, helped them calculate the number of months and then days in the year. After the conquest, the right of discovery was assigned to Rome. One of the months was named after Julius Caesar - “July”.
Zodiac, temple of Dendera. Louvre, Paris.
2. Achievements of Ancient Egypt in medicine
Thanks to archaeological finds, it became known that the highest clergy of the state - the priests - had an idea of human anatomy. They possessed advanced technologies for carrying out complex operations that became available only recently: craniotomy, amputation, eye surgery. Treatment with herbs and oils was widely used, and special attention was paid to sports.
In Egypt, a prototype of the modern chemical ampicillin was invented for the treatment of infectious diseases. The discovery was quite simple: bread cakes became moldy over time. It was applied to the inflamed area and after a while the wound healed. The composition of ampicillin was studied only in the middle of the 20th century.
Egyptian doctors served in the courts of the kings of neighboring states. The most famous physician was the Egyptian Ujahorresent.
3. The emergence of writing in ancient Egypt
The Egyptians invented a material for writing historical chronicles - papyrus. It was made from lotus stems that grew on the banks of the Nile. The technology for preparing material for writing was brought to perfection: some sheets with invaluable information are still in excellent condition today. The text on them is easy to read, the pictures are clearly visible. The knowledge conveyed in the papyri is the basis for obtaining information about the cultural past of the ancient civilization and the states of Mesopotamia. They contained encyclopedic information and the first geographical maps, reflecting the Egyptians' ideas about the location of neighboring empires. One of them depicts the route of the Pharaoh's army around the continent of Africa.
Papyri of ancient Egypt 4. Achievements in the construction of Egypt
The best architectural monuments of ancient civilization were built for ideological purposes. They demonstrated the unlimited power of the immortal pharaohs. A distinctive feature of the buildings of ancient Egypt was their grandeur, monumentality and massiveness.
Before construction Eiffel Tower in 1889, the Pyramid of Khafre was considered the tallest structure in the world. The Great Sphinx and the funerary complex of Cheops on the Giza plateau are the last surviving wonder of the world of the seven. Other impressive architectural monuments became the temple of Ramses II at Abu Simbel, the tombs of the city of Abydos, on the territory of the ancient capital of Thebes.
5. Religion of the ancient Egyptians
The birth of civilization marked the advent of the era of polytheism, combined with an abundance of women's cults for worship. They occupied the highest place in the hierarchy of idols: Isis (Isis), Hathor (Hathor, Dendera).
Entire temple complexes were built in their honor: the Temple of Dendera in Luxor, in Aswan. Ordinary citizens worshiped them and brought gifts, saying prayers for the Nile to flood and for a good harvest. In their honor, sacrifice rites were also performed by the pharaohs, whose power was based on anointing and bestowing favor on the celestials. Also, when depicting sculptures of religious figures, features of representatives of the animal world were used. Some kings called themselves by their names, like the rulers of the zero dynasties, Crocodile, Falcon.
At the last stage of the existence of the ancient Egyptian state, religious ideas were characterized by features of monotheism (the reforms of Pharaoh Akhenaten). Special place during traditional ceremonies, attention was paid to funeral cult. How to read prayers and carry out the mummification process was known only to the clergy - priests initiated into all the secrets of travel to the other world. The spell texts with drawings were later combined into inscriptions inscribed on the walls of the tombs of the great pharaohs.
Particular attention was paid to embalming the body after death. Mummies of wives, children (the first dynasties of Egypt) and even domestic animals were placed in the tomb with the deceased. In a special room, furnishings and supplies of food and gold were stored, the volume of which depended on the wealth of the owner. Compliance with all burial requirements required significant material and time costs. Not every citizen could afford this procedure.
Literature of Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egyptian papyri and rock paintings depicted not only religious texts, but also scenes from everyday life and government. Various genres were used: teaching, biography, fairy tale, humorous and even satirical stories.
The ancient Egyptians were not averse to making jokes and wrote entire agendas ridiculing the system of government. The most famous works were “The Song of the Harper”, “The Tale of Sinuhet”, “The Conversation of the Disappointed with His Soul-. In understanding the culture of the ancient Egyptians, obelisks played a huge role, on which hieroglyphs were written with descriptions of military campaigns, the life of ordinary Egyptians, and the achievements of the pharaohs.
The basis of the culture of ancient Egypt were the following postulates, reflected in literature:
- The personification of justice, high moral principles. Fear of torment in the other world after death. with scales, on one side of which are good deeds, on the other - the sins of a person.
- Elements of Manifestation collective intelligence. Displacement of the features of a civilized society and a primitive one.
- The desire to understand the world around us, rationalism. Strict hierarchical connections in culture and science.
- Traditionalism, honoring the religious cults of ancestors.
The main symbol of ancient Egyptian culture was the figure of the sphinx, combining the features of man and animal.
Merits of the Egyptian Architect Imhotep
The most outstanding achievements ancient Egypt were created thanks to the knowledge of an architect close to the court and. The official was sometimes even mistakenly assigned the status of pharaoh. His achievements include the development of a diagram and calculations for the construction of the Cheops pyramid. He proposed the most correct model for the tilt of the structure, which ensured its stability.
Due to poor proportions, the ancient complexes located in the Saqqara necropolis near Giza are in extremely poor condition. Many of them are completely destroyed and represent a pile of stones. Esotericists who claim that the pyramids were the result of work extraterrestrial civilizations, suggested that great knowledge was imparted to Imhotep by alien beings.
Video writing and religion of Ancient Egypt