What refers to means of expression. Means of artistic expression: examples in literature

TROPE

Trope is a word or expression used in figurative meaning to create artistic image and achieving greater expressiveness. Paths include techniques such as epithet, comparison, personification, metaphor, metonymy, sometimes they include hyperboles and litotes. No work of art is complete without tropes. Artistic word- ambiguous; the writer creates images, playing with meanings and combinations of words, using the environment of the word in the text and its sound - all this constitutes the artistic possibilities of the word, which is the only tool of the writer or poet.
Pay attention! When creating a trope, the word is always used in a figurative sense.

Let's consider different types tropes:

EPITHET(Greek Epitheton, attached) is one of the tropes, which is an artistic, figurative definition. An epithet can be:
adjectives: gentle face (S. Yesenin); these poor villages, this meager nature...(F. Tyutchev); transparent maiden (A. Blok);
participles: edge abandoned(S. Yesenin); frenzied dragon (A. Blok); takeoff illuminated(M. Tsvetaeva);
nouns, sometimes together with their surrounding context: Here he is leader without squads(M. Tsvetaeva); My youth! My little dove is dark!(M. Tsvetaeva).

Every epithet reflects the uniqueness of the author’s perception of the world, therefore it necessarily expresses some kind of assessment and has a subjective meaning: a wooden shelf is not an epithet, so there is no artistic definition, wooden face - an epithet expressing the speaker’s impression of the interlocutor’s facial expression, that is, creating an image.
There are stable (permanent) folklore epithets: remote, portly, kind Well done, It's clear sun, as well as tautological, that is, repetition epithets, the same root with the defined word: Eh, bitter grief, boring boredom, mortal! (A. Blok).

IN work of art an epithet can perform various functions:

• describe the subject figuratively: shining eyes, eyes- diamonds;
• create an atmosphere, mood: gloomy morning;
• convey the attitude of the author (storyteller, lyrical hero) to the subject being characterized: “Where will our prankster?" (A. Pushkin);
• combine all previous functions in equal shares (in most cases of using the epithet).

Pay attention! All color terms V literary text are epithets.

COMPARISON is an artistic technique (trope) in which an image is created by comparing one object with another. Comparison differs from other artistic comparisons, for example, likenings, in that it always has a strict formal sign: a comparative construction or a turnover with comparative conjunctions as if, as if, exactly, as if and the like. Expressions like he looked like... cannot be considered a comparison as a trope.

Examples of comparisons:

Comparison also plays certain roles in the text: sometimes authors use the so-called detailed comparison, revealing various signs of a phenomenon or conveying one’s attitude towards several phenomena. Often a work is entirely based on comparison, such as, for example, V. Bryusov’s poem “Sonnet to Form”:

PERSONALIZATION- an artistic technique (trope) in which inanimate object, a phenomenon or concept is given human properties (do not confuse, exactly human!). Personification can be used narrowly, in one line, in a small fragment, but it can be a technique on which the entire work is built (“You are my abandoned land” by S. Yesenin, “Mother and the evening killed by the Germans”, “The violin and a little nervously” by V. Mayakovsky, etc.). Personification is considered one of the types of metaphor (see below).

Impersonation task- to correlate the depicted object with a person, to make it closer to the reader, to figuratively comprehend the inner essence of the object, hidden from everyday life. Personification is one of the oldest figurative means of art.

HYPERBOLA(Greek: Hyperbole, exaggeration) is a technique in which an image is created through artistic exaggeration. Hyperbole is not always included in the set of tropes, but by the nature of the use of the word in a figurative meaning to create an image, hyperbole is very close to tropes. A technique opposite in content to hyperbole is LITOTES(Greek Litotes, simplicity) is an artistic understatement.

Hyperbole allows the author to show the reader in an exaggerated form the most characteristic features depicted object. Often hyperbole and litotes are used by the author in an ironic way, revealing not just characteristic, but negative, from the author’s point of view, aspects of the subject.

METAPHOR(Greek Metaphora, transfer) - a type of so-called complex trope, a speech turn in which the properties of one phenomenon (object, concept) are transferred to another. A metaphor contains a hidden comparison, a figurative likening of phenomena using the figurative meaning of words; what the object is compared with is only implied by the author. No wonder Aristotle said that “to compose good metaphors means to notice similarities.”

Examples of metaphor:

METONYMY(Greek Metonomadzo, rename) - type of trope: figurative designation of an object according to one of its characteristics.

Examples of metonymy:

When studying the topic "Means artistic expression"and completing tasks, pay special attention to the definitions of the concepts given. You must not only understand their meaning, but also know the terminology by heart. This will protect you from practical mistakes: knowing for sure that the method of comparison has strict formal characteristics (see theory on topic 1), you will not confuse this technique with a number of other artistic techniques, which are also based on the comparison of several objects, but are not a comparison.

Please note that you must begin your answer either with the suggested words (by rewriting them) or with your own version of the beginning of the complete answer. This applies to all such tasks.

Recommended reading:

• Literary criticism: Reference materials. - M., 1988.
• Polyakov M. Rhetoric and literature. Theoretical aspects. - In the book: Questions of poetics and artistic semantics. - M.: Sov. writer, 1978.
• Dictionary literary terms. - M., 1974.

The topic of our article is the means of expression in a poem. We will tell you what it is below. As an example of analysis and to consolidate the material, the reader is invited to pay attention to F. Tyutchev’s poem “Leaves” and the beautiful poetic lines of Pushkin “ Winter morning».

What are means of expression?

A means of expressive speech is a complex of sound (phonetic), syntactic, lexical or phraseological elements used to achieve a better effect from what is said, attract attention, and emphasize certain aspects in speech.

Highlight:

• Sound (phonetic) means. This includes the use of certain sounds that are repeated periodically, giving special sound. Symbolist poets often used such methods. For example, everyone famous poem Konstantin Balmont’s “Reeds” fascinates with hissing sounds that create the effect of the noise of reeds.
• Syntactic. These are the features of sentence construction. For example, V. Mayakovsky has short, sharp phrases that immediately focus attention on the topic.
• Phraseological. This includes the author's use of so-called catchphrases- aphorisms.
• Lexical and semantic: related to the word and its meaning.
• Paths. They are most often inherent in artistic speech. These are metaphors and metonymies, hyperboles.

Means of expression in a poem

Before moving on to the poem and studying its means of expression, it is worth paying attention to the style of this genre. As we said above, each genre uses its own means of expression. Most often, these methods of emphasizing the author's intention are found in artistic style. Poetry is definitely artistic genre(with some very rare exceptions), therefore, means of expression in the poem are used so that the reader can perceive more information and better understand the author. For prose writers, form and style allow them not to be constrained by the size of their works, while it is more difficult for poets to fit their feelings and thoughts, vision and understanding into relatively short lines.

The most commonly used techniques of expression in poetry

The expressions in the poem are quite varied. They are not the property of a specific author, as they were created and improved over decades. But here on specific examples and sometimes it becomes very easy to recognize the author by favorite means. The poetry of Sergei Yesenin, for example, is always filled with beautiful epithets and amazing metaphors. If you read an unknown poem to a person who knows his style, most likely he will name the author without hesitation.

Means of expression in the poem:

• Allegory. Its essence is to express an object or character trait through a certain image. For example, the wolf in fairy tales and fables is always an allegorical symbol of cruelty, ferocity, and self-will.
• Hyperbole and litotes. Simply put, artistic exaggeration and understatement.
• Antithesis. A method of expressiveness that is achieved by comparing or placing two or more contrasting concepts side by side. A.S. Pushkin, for example, says about a storm: “Then it will howl like an animal, then it will cry like a child.”
• the same beginning of several lines, as in the brilliant poem by Konstantin Simonov “Wait for me.”
• Alliteration. The use of consonant sounds of a particular sound series, as in Balmont’s “Reeds”, hissing sounds alternating with each other, creates the mystical presence of the noise of plants at night.
• Metaphor. The figurative meaning of a word, based on one or more characteristics. Yesenin’s “Old Woman’s Hut,” for example. The flimsy hut is compared to the old woman due to the advanced age of both.
• Metonymy. One word instead of another, or a part instead of the whole.
• Personification. A technique when a non-living object is attributed the properties of a living thing.
• Comparison and epithet. The first is when one subject is compared with another for a better effect of conveying information. The second is known to many from literature lessons and is an artistic definition.

Means of expression in the poem “Leaves” by Tyutchev

In order to better consolidate the topic, we will look at specific poems and, using their examples, we will try to understand what techniques of expressiveness are.

This poetic attempt of the writer to understand the meaning of life, to mourn its transience - a real masterpiece landscape lyrics. She is like a monologue of leaves that are sad about their fate and the summer that has flown by so imperceptibly.

There are many means of expression here. This is personification (the leaves speak, think, the author presents them to the reader as living beings), and antithesis (the leaves contrast themselves with the pine needles), and comparison (“hedgehog needles” they call pine needles). Here we can also see alliteration techniques (sounds “zh”, “ch”, “sh”).

Playing with tense forms of verbs helps the author achieve the effect of dynamics and movement. Thanks to this technique, the reader practically feels the transience of time and the movement of leaves. Well, like any poem, “Leaves” is not without the use of epithets. There are a lot of them here, they are colorful and alive.

Pay attention to the size of the poem. In just four short lines, the poet uses many means of expression and raises several philosophical questions. Always be attentive when reading poetry, and you will be pleasantly surprised at how much the author tells us.

Poem "Winter Morning"

The means of expression in the poem “Winter Morning” delight with their diversity. This work is an example of the best landscape poetry.

Techniques that A.S. Pushkin uses to achieve a special mood - this is primarily an antithesis. The contrast between the gloomy yesterday and the beautiful today highlights both pictures of nature - a cold snow storm and a beautiful morning - into separate canvases. The reader seems to see both the noise of the blizzard and the blinding snow.

Special positive epithets “charming”, “magnificent”, “wonderful” emphasize the author’s mood and convey it to us. Personification is also present in poetry. The blizzard is “angry” here, and the darkness “rushed” across the gloomy sky.

In conclusion

Means of expressive speech do not just decorate and complement speech, they make it lively and artistic. They are like bright colors with which an artist brings his painting to life. Their purpose is to emphasize and draw attention, enhance the impression, perhaps even surprise. Therefore, when reading poetry, do not rush, think about what the author wants to convey. By missing the thoughts of great artists hidden between the lines of words, you lose a lot.

Towards figurative and expressive language means fiction include:

Epithet- an artistic and figurative definition of an object or phenomenon.

Example: sadness - "inexpressible" eyes - "huge" May - "solar", fingers - "the finest"(O. Mandel-shtam “Inexpressible sadness...")

Hyperbola- artistic exaggeration.

Example: The earth was shaking— like our breasts; Horses, people, and volleys mixed in a heap thousands of guns Merged into a long howl... (M.Yu. Lermontov “Borodino”)

Litotes- artistic understatement (“reverse hyperbole”).

Example: " Youngest son was as tall as a finger..."(A.A. Akh-matova. “Lullaby”).

Trails- words or phrases used not in a literal, but in a figurative meaning. The trails include allegory, allusion, metaphor, metonymy, personification, periphrase, symbol, symphora, synecdoche, comparison, euphemism.

Allegory- allegory, depiction of an abstract idea through a concrete, clearly represented image. The allegory is unambiguous and directly points to a strictly defined concept.

Example: fox- cunning wolf- cruelty, donkey - stupidity (in fables); gloomy Albion- England (A.S. Pushkin “When you squeeze your hand again...”).

Allusion- one of the tropes, which consists in the use of a transparent allusion to some well-known everyday, literary or historical fact instead of mentioning the fact itself.

Example: A. S. Pushkin’s mention of the Patriotic War of 1812:

Why? be responsible: for whether,

What's on the ruins of burning Moscow

We did not recognize the arrogant will

The one under whom you trembled?

(“To the slanderers of Russia”)

Metaphor- this is a hidden comparison based on some characteristics common to the compared objects or phenomena.

Example: The east is burning with a new dawn(A.S. Pushkin “Poltava”).

Personification- endowing objects and phenomena of non-living nature with the features of a living being (most often a person).

Example: “The night thickened, flew nearby, grabbed those jumping by the cloaks and, tearing them off their shoulders, exposed the deceptions(M. A. Bulgakov “The Master and Margarita”).

Metonymy- a poetic trope consisting of replacing one word or concept with another that has a causal connection with the first.

Example: There is a Museum of Ethnography in this city

Over the Neva, wide as the Nile,

(N. S. Gumilyov “Abyssinia”)

Synecdoche- one of the tropes that is built on the relationship of quantity; more instead of less or vice versa.

Example: Say: how soon will we Warsaw Will the proud man prescribe his own law? (A. S. Pushkin “Borodin Anniversary”)

Periphrase- a trope that is built on the principle of expanded metonymy and consists of replacing a word or phrase with a descriptive figure of speech, which indicates the characteristics of an object not directly named.

Example: in the poem by A. A. Akhmatova “The dark-skinned youth wandered through the alleys...” using periphrasis, A. S. Pushkin himself is depicted:

Here lay his cocked hat and the disheveled volume of Guys.

Euphemism- replacement of a rude, indecent or intimate word or statement with others that transparently hint at the true meaning (close to periphrasis in stylistic organization).

Example: woman in an interesting position instead of pregnant, recovered instead of getting fat, borrowed instead he stole it, etc.

Symbol- hidden comparison, in which the object being compared is not named, but is implied to a certain extent

variability (multiple meanings). A symbol only points to some reality, but is not compared with it unambiguously and directly; this contains the fundamental difference between a symbol and a metaphor, with which it is often confused.

Example: I'm just a cloud full of fire(K. D. Balmont “I do not know wisdom”). The only point The contact between the poet and the cloud turns out to be “fleeting.”

Anaphora (unity of principle)- this is the repetition of similar sounds, words, syntactic and rhythmic repetitions at the beginning of adjacent verses, stanzas (in poetic works) or closely spaced phrases in a paragraph or at the beginning of adjacent paragraphs (in prose).

Example: Kohl love so crazy Kohl threaten, so seriously, Kohl scold, so rashly, Kohl chop, just like that! (A.K. Tolstoy “If you love, you go crazy...”)

Multi-Union- such a construction of a stanza, episode, verse, paragraph, when all the main logically significant phrases (segments) included in it are connected by the same conjunction:

Example: And the wind, and the rain, and the darkness

Above the cold desert of water. (I. A. Bunin “Loneliness”)

Gradation- gradual, consistent strengthening or weakening of images, comparisons, epithets and other means of artistic expression.

Example: No one will give us deliverance, Neither God, nor king, nor hero...

(E. Pothier “Internationale”)

Oxymoron (or oxymoron)- a contrasting combination of words with opposite meanings in order to create an ethical effect.

Example: “I love lush nature fading..."(A.S. Pushkin “Autumn”).

Alliteration- a technique of sound writing that gives lines of verse or parts of prose a special sound through the repetition of certain consonant sounds.

Example: “Katya, Katya,” they are cutting out the horseshoes for my race...” In I. Selvinsky’s poem “The Black-Eyed Cossack Woman,” the repetition of the sound “k” imitates the clatter of hooves.

Antiphrasis- the use of a word or expression in a sense opposite to its semantics, most often ironic.

Example: ...He sang faded color of life"Almost at eighteen years old. (A. S. Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”)

Stylization- this is a technique that consists in the fact that the author deliberately imitates the style, manner, poetics of some other famous work or a group of works.

Example: in the poem “Tsarskoye Selo Statue” A. S. Pushkin resorts to stylization of ancient poetry:

Having dropped the urn with water, the maiden broke it on the cliff. The virgin sits sadly, idle holding a shard. Miracle! The water does not dry up, pouring out from the broken urn, the Virgin sits eternally sad over the eternal stream.

Anthology- the use of words and expressions in the work in their direct, immediate, everyday meaning. This is neutral, “prosaic” speech.

Example: Winter. What should we do in the village? I meet a Servant bringing me a cup of tea in the morning with questions: is it warm? Has the snowstorm subsided? (A.S. Pushkin “Winter. What should we do in the village?..”)

Antithesis— artistic contrast images, concepts, provisions, situations, etc.

Example: here is a fragment of the historical song “Choice of Er-mak as Ataman”:

Unclear falcons flew together - They gathered and gathered Good fellows...

Theoretical part

Ability to analyze lyrical works, episodes prose text constitutes one of essential skills literary and language training. Among other requirements of this work, the most difficult is finding visual expressive means in the text, as well as determining the purpose of their use by the author. The table below presents the main means of artistic speech and examples of their use. You are already familiar with some of them, others you will be able to identify during your studies at our lyceum.

Language device	Definition	Example
Anaphora (unity of principle)	Repeating words or phrases at the beginning of a sentence	Hands are released when a person reads one thing in newspapers, but sees something else in life. Hands are released from constant confusion, mismanagement, and massive bureaucracy.Hands are released when you realize that no one around you is responsible for anything and that no one cares. This is what gives up! (R. Rozhdestvensky)
Antithesis (oppositions) )	A sharp contrast of concepts, characters, images, creating the effect of sharp contrast	All world literature I divide it into 2 types -literature at home and literature of homelessness. Literature achieved harmony and literature of longing for harmony. Crazy rampant Dostoevsky- and a powerful slow rhythm Tolstoy. How dynamic Tsvetaeva and how static Akhmatova! (F. Iskander)
Question-and-answer form of presentation		Many believe that fighting manifestations of fascism is the job of law enforcement agencies. Well, what about us ourselves? Pawns, or what? Pieces of history? Slaves of time and circumstances? Yes, no single institution of society alone can cope with human phobia and inhumanity - this is the task of all of us.
Hyperbola	Artistic exaggeration.	Russia is stricken with a severe ideological disease, which more severe than hydrogen bomb 20th century. The name of this disease is xenophobia (I. Rudenko).
Gradation	A syntactic construction within which there are homogeneous means of expression are arranged in order of strengthening or weakening of the characteristic.	Vedas and the truth: what's the point? courage, fearlessness, selfless courage , if there is no conscience behind them?! Bad, unworthy, stupid and disgusting laugh at a person. (L. Panteleev)
Grotesque	Artistic exaggeration to the point of incredible, fantastic.	If some universal saboteurs were sent to destroy all life on Earth and turn it into dead stone, if they carefully developed this operation of theirs, they could not act more intelligently and insidiously than we, the people living on Earth, act. (V. Soloukhin)
Inversion	Reverse the order of words in a sentence. (In direct order, the subject precedes the predicate, the agreed definition comes before the word being defined, the inconsistent definition comes after it, the complement comes after the control word, the circumstances of the manner of action come before the verb. And with inversion, the words are arranged in a different order than established by the grammatical rules).	The month is up dark night , looks lonely from a black cloud at theOlya Desert , on distant villages , on nearby villages .(M. Neverov) Dazzlingly bright flames burst out of the oven (N. Gladkov) I don't believe it in the good thoughts of today's new Russians. (D. Granin)
Irony	A type of misstatement when ridicule is hidden behind an outwardly positive assessment.	Men's suits for sale, one style. What colors? ABOUT, huge selection flowers! Black, black-gray, gray-black, blackish gray, slate, slate, sandpaper, cast iron color, coconut color, peat, earthen, garbage, cake color and the color that in the old days was called “the robber’s dream.” In general, you understand, the color is one, pure mourning at a poor funeral. (I. Ilf, E. Perov)
Compositional joint	Repeating at the beginning of a new sentence a word from a previous sentence, usually ending it.	We went to this glory for many years. For many years our people lived one thing: everything for the front, everything for victory, because only after it is simple human life. Life , for which millions died.
Contextual (or contextual) anonyms	Words that are not contrasted in meaning in a language and are anonymous only in the source text.	An inferiority complex can ruin human soul. Or maybe elevate to the skies. Something similar is happening with atomic energy. It can warm up all globe. Is it possiblesplit it into a thousand parts. (S. Dovlatov)
Contextual (or contextual) synonyms		It was true, old table lamp, bought at a consignment store, someone else's antiquity , which does not evoke any memories, and therefore is not expensive in any way (D. Granin) That was leading... appeared before me two angels..two geniuses. I say:angels..geniuses - because both of them had no clothes on their scorched bodies and strong, long wings rose behind their shoulders. (I. Turgenev)
Lexical repetition	Repetition of the same word in the text.	- These People – yours relatives ? “Yes,” he said. - All these people are relatives ? “Absolutely,” he said. - People the whole world? All nationalities? People of all eras? (S. Dovlatov)
Litotes	Artistic understatement.	We with our ambitions are less forest ants .(V. Astafiev)
Metaphor (including expanded)	Transferring to an object or phenomenon any sign of another phenomenon or object (an extended metaphor is a metaphor that is consistently carried out throughout a large fragment of a message or the entire message as a whole	There were, are and, I hope, there will always be more good people in the world than bad and evil people, otherwise there would be disharmony in the world, it would skew, ……… capsize and sink. It is cleansed, the soul is what it seems to me, the whole world held its breath, this bubbling, menacing world of ours began to think, ready to fall to its knees with me, to repent, to fall with its withered mouth to the holy spring of goodness... (N. Gogol)
Metonymy	Transfer of meaning (renaming) based on the contiguity of phenomena.	Winter. Freezing . The village is smoking in the cold clear sky gray smoke (V. Shukshin) Funeral Mozart sounded under the arches of the cathedral (V. Astafiev). Black tailcoats rushed around in groups and in heaps here and there. (N. Gogol).
Homogeneous members of the sentence	A syntactic means of expressiveness that allows a) to emphasize the various qualities of something B) see the dynamics of action C) see, hear, understand something in detail.	The singing of the organ fills the vaults of the cathedral. From the sky. above. floats then rumble, then thunder, then gentlevoice lovers then call Vestal Virgins then the roulades of the horn, then sounds harpsichord, then talk rolling stream... The hall is full of people old and young, Russian and non-Russian, evil and kind, strong and bright, tired and enthusiastic, all kinds. If we are destined die, burn, disappear , then let now, let at this moment, fate punish us for all our evil deeds and vices. (V. Astafiev)
Oxymoron	A combination in an image or phenomenon of incompatible concepts.	Sweet torment he, an exile, experienced when he returned to Russia. Anxious-joyful expectation was replaced in him by calm confidence in tomorrow. (N. Krivtsov)
Occasionalisms		How can we ensure that our truth is notexpanded at the expense of the rights of others. (A. Solzhenitsyn)
Personification (personification)	Assigning properties of living beings to inanimate objects.	Hops, crawling along the ground, grabs onto oncoming herbs, but they turn out to be rather weak for him,and he crawls, groveling, further and further..... He must constantly look around and fumble around you, looking for something to grab onto, something to lean on reliable earthly support. (V. Soloukhin)
Parcellaria	Intentional fragmentation of a sentence into meaningful semantic parts.	There lived a fragile, disease-causing young man in Germany.Stuttered from uncertainty. Avoided entertainment. And only at the piano did he transform. His name was Mozart . (S. Dovlatov)
Periphrase	A descriptive expression used in place of a word.	The word “gold” occupied a special place in his dictionary. Whatever you want was called gold. Coal and oil- “black gold”. Cotton- “white gold”. Gas - “blue gold”. (V. Voinovich)
Rhetorical question	Expressing a statement in interrogative form.	Who among us has not admired the sunrise, the summer meadows, the raging sea? Who hasn’t admired the shades of color in the evening sky? Who hasn’t froze in delight at the sight of a suddenly appearing valley in mountain gorges? (V. Astafiev)
Rhetorical exclamation	Expressing a statement in exclamatory form.	What magic, kindness, light in the word teacher! And how great is his role in the life of each of us! (V. Sukhomlinsky)
Rhetorical appeal	A figure of speech in which the author’s attitude towards what is being said is expressed in the form of an address.	My dears! But who, besides us, will think about us? (V. Voinovich) And you, mentally wretched vandals, Are you also shouting about patriotism? (P. Voschin)
Sarcasm	Caustic irony.	And every time, openly slacking at work (“it will do..!”, blinding something at random (“it will change..!”), without thinking through something, without calculating, without checking (“oh well, it will work out..!” "), turning a blind eye to our own negligence (“I don’t care..!”), we ourselves, with our own hands, own so-called labor We are building training grounds for the upcoming demonstration of mass heroism, preparing ourselves for tomorrow’s accidents and catastrophes! (R. Rozhdestvensky)
Comparative turnover (including detailed comparison)	Comparison of objects, concepts, phenomena to emphasize a particularly important feature. The comparison can be passed: 1) using comparative unions how, exactly, as if, as if, what, as if, etc.	The night, like a gloomy oratorio of ancient masters, grew in the garden, where the stars were scattered likered, blue and white hyacinth petals...
	2) Using words similar to, similar to, similar, reminiscent, Similar to...	And the office the master looked more like the abode of a warlock than a simple musician .
	3) Genitive case of a noun.	Varnish on the violin was the color of blood.
	4) Instrumental case of a noun.	The old master never attended mass because his playing was so crazy takeoff to the impossible, perhaps forbidden...
	5) Comparative turnover.	Along with her, painful impatience grew in the master’s soul and,like a thin icy stream of water, the calm fire of creativity was flooded.
	6) Denial (i.e. not comparison, but opposition of one object or phenomenon to another).	Not a violin - a soul the musician sounded in this yearning melody.
	7) Subordinate comparative.	Next to him, perhaps for a long time, walked a short, flexible stranger with a black and curly beard and a sharp look, how the German Minnesingers were depicted in the old days
Syntactic parallelism	Identical (parallel) construction of several adjacent sentences and paragraphs.	What is a clerk? This is the displacement of a verb, that is, movement, action, by a participle, a gerund, a noun (especially verbal!), which means stagnation, immobility. This is a pile-up of nouns in indirect cases, most often long chains of nouns in the same case - genitive, so that it is no longer possible to understand what refers to what and what is being discussed. This is the displacement of active revolutions by passive ones, almost always heavier, more cumbersome. (N. Gogol)
Epithet	An artistic definition, i.e. colorful, figurative, which emphasizes some of its distinctive properties in a certain word.	There is only mine appraising, ethereal soul, it oozes with incomprehensible pain and tearsquiet delight... Let the vaults of the cathedral collapse, and instead of the executioner about bloody, criminally built the path will carry music into people's hearts genius , notanimal killer roar. (V. Astafiev)
Epiphora	The same ending of several sentences, reinforcing the meaning of this image, concept, etc.	How did the French influence Pushkin? we know . How Schiller influenced Dostoevsky -we know. How Dostoevsky influenced all modern world literature - we know.

Here are options for completing tasks

A) From this passage, write down one example of personification, simile and epithet.

The wind is screeching, rushing like mad, red clouds are rushing, low, as if torn to shreds, everything is unfurled, mixed, overwhelmed, a zealous downpour swayed in sheer columns, lightning blinds with fiery green, abrupt thunder shoots like from a cannon, there is a smell of sulfur...

I.S. Turgenev “Pigeons”

(from the series “poems in prose”)

Answer: 1) The wind screeches - personification

2) shoots like a cannon - comparison

3) zealous downpour - epithet

b) Drawing a picture of a thunderstorm, I.S. Turgenev uses comparisons. Write them out from the text, answer the question: for what purpose does the author use these artistic means?

Answer:

rushing around like crazy

like clouds torn to shreds

the downpour swayed in vertical columns

shoots like a cannon

Using comparisons, the author draws a powerful movement of nature, disturbing and at the same time cleansing. Storms and thunderstorms instill fear in the hero of the story and at the same time it is fun for him! You can imagine in this picture both a mad, indomitable animal, ready to trample all living things, and heavy streams of water that from a distance look like moving pillars, and you can hear the cannonade of an approaching battle.

Practice tests

“3” - 5-6 correct answers.

Test 1.

Exercise:

1. Below him is a stream of lighter azure.

(M. Lermontov.)

2. A heroic horse jumps through the forest.

3. The golden stars dozed off.

(S. Yesenin.)

4. Ahead is a deserted September day.

(K. Paustovsky.)

5 . The water is tired of singing, tired of flowing,

Shine, flow and shimmer.

(D. Samoilov.)

6 . The dandelions went to bed with us,

children, and stood up with us.

(M. Prishvin.)

7. She chirps and sings

On the eve of the forest,

as if protecting the entrance

In forest holes.

(B. Pasternak.)

8. Forests dressed in scarlet and gold.

(A. Pushkin.)

9. Autumn will wake up soon

and will cry sleepily.

(K. Balmont.)

10. But it still has to freeze,

And not to sing, but to ring like armor.

(D. Samoilov.)

Answers: 1.Comparison (simple). 2. Hyperbola. 3 .Personification. 4 .Epithet. 5 .Homogeneous members of the sentence. 6 .Personification. 7 .Comparison. 8 .Metaphor 9. Personifications 10 .Comparison.

Test 2 .

Exercise: Name the means of expression that the author used.

1. Life is a mouse race...

Why are you bothering me? (A. Pushkin)

2. Boy with a thumb.

3. The forest is like a painted tower. (I. Bunin)

4. When people...

Belinsky and Gogol

It will come from the market. (N. Nekrasov)

5. O Volga, my cradle! (N. Nekrasov)

6. Chalk, chalk all over the earth,

To all limits.

The candle was burning on the table,

The candle was burning. (B. Pasternak)

7. They got along. Wave and stone

Poetry and prose, ice and fire,

Not so different from each other. (A. Pushkin)

8. We haven't seen each other for a hundred years!

9. The seahorses seemed much more interesting. (V. Kataev)

10. And the punch flame is blue. (A. Pushkin)

Answers: 1. Rhetorical question 2. Litotes 3 .Comparison 4. Metonymy 5 .Appeal 6 .Lexical repetition 7 .Antithesis 8 .Hyperbola 9 .Comparison 10 . Metaphor

You've probably heard more than once that Russian is one of the most difficult languages. Why? It's all about the design of the speech. Means of expression make our words richer, poems more expressive, prose more interesting. It is impossible to clearly convey thoughts without using special lexical figures, because speech will sound poor and ugly.

Let's figure out what types of expressive means the Russian language is and where to find them.

Perhaps at school you wrote essays poorly: the text “didn’t work”, the words were chosen with difficulty, and it was generally unrealistic to finish the presentation with a clear thought. The fact is that the necessary syntactic means are put into the head by reading books. However, they alone are not enough to write interestingly, colorfully and easily. You need to develop your skill through practice.

Just compare the next two columns. On the left is text without means of expression or with a minimal amount of them. On the right is text rich in expressiveness. These are often found in the literature.

It would seem like three banal sentences, but how interesting they can be described! Expressive language helps the viewer see the picture you are trying to describe. There is an art to using them, but it is not difficult to master. It is enough to read a lot and pay attention to the interesting techniques used by the author.

For example, in the paragraph of text on the right, epithets are used, thanks to which the subject is instantly presented as bright and unusual. What will the reader remember better - an ordinary cat or a fat commander cat? Rest assured that the second option will probably be more to your liking. And there won’t be such embarrassment that in the middle of the text the cat will suddenly be white, but the reader has long imagined it to be gray!

So, syntactic means - special moves artistic expression that proves, substantiates, depicts information and engages the imagination of the reader or listener. This is extremely important not only for writing, but also for oral speech. Especially if the speech or text is written in . However, in both cases, the means of expression in the Russian language should be in moderation. Do not oversaturate the reader or listener with them, otherwise he will quickly get tired of making his way through such a “jungle”.

Existing means of expression

There are a lot of such special techniques, and it is unlikely that you know everything about them. Let's start with the fact that you don't need to use all means of expressiveness at once - this makes speech difficult. You need to use them in moderation, but not skimp. Then you will achieve the desired effect.

Traditionally they are divided into several groups:

• phonetic - most often found in poems;
• lexical (tropes);
• stylistic figures.

Let's try to deal with them in order. And to make it more convenient for you, after the explanation, all the expressive means of the language are presented in convenient tablets - you can print them out and hang them on the wall so that you can re-read them from time to time. This way you can learn them unobtrusively.

Phonetic techniques

Among phonetic techniques, the two most common are alliteration and assonance. They differ only in that in the first case the consonants are repeated, in the second - the vowels.

This technique is very convenient to use in poems when there are few words, but you need to convey the atmosphere. Yes, and poetry is most often read aloud, and assonance or alliteration helps to “see” the picture.

Suppose we need to describe a swamp. In the swamp there are reeds that rustle. The beginning of the line is ready - the reeds rustle. We can already hear this sound, but this is not enough to complete the picture.

Do you hear the reeds seem to rustle and hiss silently? Now we can feel this atmosphere. This technique is called alliteration - consonant letters are repeated.

Likewise with assonance, repetition of vowels. This one is a little easier. For example: I hear a spring thunderstorm, then I fall silent, then I sing. With this, the author conveys a lyrical mood and spring sadness. The effect is achieved through the skillful use of vowels. A table will help explain what assonance is.

Lexical devices (tropes)

Lexical devices are used much more often than other means of expression. The fact is that people often use them unconsciously. For example, we can say that our heart is lonely. But the heart cannot actually be lonely, it is just an epithet, a means of expression. However, such expressions help to emphasize deep meaning what was said.

The main lexical devices include the following tropes:

• epithet;
• comparison as a means of expressive speech;
• metaphor;
• metonymy;
• irony;
• hyperbole and litotes.

Sometimes we use these lexical units unconsciously. For example, comparison slips into everyone’s speech - this means of expressiveness has become firmly established in daily life, so you need to use it wisely.

Metaphor is a more interesting form of comparison because we are not comparing slow death to cigarettes by using the word “as if.” We already understand that slow death is a cigarette. Or, for example, the expression “dry clouds”. Most likely, this means that it has not rained for a long time. Epithet and metaphor often overlap, so when analyzing the text it is important not to confuse them.

Hyperbole and litotes are exaggeration and understatement, respectively. For example, the expression “the sun has absorbed the power of a hundred fires” is a clear hyperbole. And “quietly, quieter than a stream” is litotes. These phenomena have also become firmly established in everyday life.

Metonymy and periphrasis – interesting phenomena. Metonymy is a shortening of what is said. For example, there is no need to talk about Chekhov's books as “books that Chekhov wrote.” You can use the expression “Chekhov’s books”, and this will be a metonymy.

And periphrasis is the deliberate replacement of concepts with synonymous ones in order to avoid tautology in the text.

Although, with the right skill, tautology can also be a means of expression!

Lexical means of expressiveness in speech also include:

• archaisms (outdated vocabulary);
• historicisms (vocabulary related to a specific historical period);
• neologisms (new vocabulary);
• phraseological units;
• dialectisms, jargon, aphorisms.

Means of expression	Definition	Example and explanation
Epithet	A definition that helps add color to an image. Often used figuratively.	Bloody sky. (Talks about sunrise.)
Comparison as a means of expressive speech	Comparing objects with each other. They may not be related, but even vice versa.	Means of expression, like expensive jewelry, exalt our speech.
Metaphor	“Hidden comparison” or figurative. More complex than a simple comparison, comparative conjunctions are not used.	Seething anger. (The man gets angry). Sleepy city. (The morning city that has not yet woken up).
Metonymy	Replacing words in order to shorten an understandable sentence or avoid tautology.	I read Chekhov’s books (and not “I read books by Chekhov”).
Irony	An expression with the opposite meaning. Hidden mockery.	You're a genius, of course! (The irony is that here "genius" is used to mean "stupid").
Hyperbola	Deliberate exaggeration of what was said.	Brighter than a thousand fiery lightning bolts. (Dazzling, bright show).
Litotes	Deliberate reduction of what was said.	Weak as a mosquito.
Periphrase	Replacement of words in order to avoid tautology. Replacement can only be a related word.	The house is a hut on chicken legs, the lion is the king of animals, etc.
Allegory	An abstract concept that helps to reveal an image. Most often it is an established designation.	Fox meaning cunning, wolf meaning strength and rudeness, turtle meaning slowness or wisdom.
Personification	Transferring the properties and feelings of a living object to an inanimate one.	The lantern seemed to sway on a long thin leg - it reminded me of a boxer preparing for a swift attack.

Stylistic figures

Stylistic figures often contain special grammatical structures. The most commonly used include:

• anaphora and epiphora;
• compositional joint;
• antithesis;
• oxymoron or paradox;
• inversion;
• parcellation;
• ellipsis;
• rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals;
• asyndeton.

Anaphora and epiphora are often classified as phonetic devices, but this is an erroneous judgment. Such techniques of artistic expression are pure stylistics. Anaphora is the same beginning of several lines, epiphora is the same ending. Most often they are used in poetry, sometimes in prose, to emphasize drama and growing anxiety, or to enhance the poetry of the moment.

A compositional junction is a deliberate “escalation” of a conflict. The word is used at the end of one sentence and at the beginning of the next. It gave me everything, the word. The Word helped me become who I am. This technique is called a compositional junction.

Antithesis is the opposition of two antipodal concepts: yesterday and today, night and day, death and life. Interesting techniques include parcellation, which is used to increase conflict and change the pace of the narrative, as well as ellipsis - the omission of a sentence member. Often used in exclamations and calls.

Means of expression	Definition	Example and explanation
Anaphora	The same beginning of several lines.	Let's join hands, brothers. Let's hold hands and connect our hearts. Let us take up swords to end the war.
Epiphora	Same ending for multiple lines.	I wash it wrong! I'm ironing wrong! Everything is wrong!
Compositional joint	One sentence ends with this word, and the second sentence begins with it.	I didn't know what to do. What to do to survive this storm.
Antithesis	Opposition	I came to life every second, but after that I died every evening. (Used to demonstrate drama).
Oxymoron	Using concepts that contradict each other.	Hot ice, peaceful war.
Paradox	An expression that has no direct meaning, but carries an aesthetic meaning.	The hot hands of the dead man were more alive than all the others. Hurry up as slowly as possible.
Inversion	Deliberate rearrangement of words in a sentence.	I was sad that night, I was afraid of everything in this world.
Parcellation	Breaking words down into separate sentences.	He waited. Again. Slouching over, he cried.
Ellipsis	Deliberate omission of a word.	Let's get to work! (the word “let’s take” is missing).
Gradation	Increasing expression, using synonyms according to the degree of increase.	His eyes, cold, emotionless, dead, expressed nothing. (Used to demonstrate drama).

Features of the use of means of expression

We should not forget that gestures are also used in spoken Russian speech. Sometimes they are more eloquent than ordinary means of expression, but in the skillful combination of these figures. Then the role will turn out to be lively, rich and bright.

Do not try to insert as many stylistic or lexical figures into your speech as possible. This will not make the word richer, but it will give you the feeling that you have “put on” too many decorations on yourself, which is why you have become uninteresting. Means of expression are like a skillfully selected accessory. Sometimes you don’t even notice it right away, it is so harmoniously intertwined in a sentence with other words.