Ice battle(briefly)
Brief description of the ice battle
The Battle of the Ice takes place on April 5, 1242. Lake Peipsi. This event became one of the most important battles in the history of Rus' and its victories. The date of this battle completely stopped any military actions on the part of the Livonian Order. However, as often happens, many facts that are associated with this event are considered controversial among researchers and historians.
As a result, today we do not know the exact number of soldiers in the Russian army, because this information is completely absent both in the Life of Nevsky himself and in the chronicles of that time. The estimated number of soldiers who took part in the battle is fifteen thousand, and the Livonian army has at least twelve thousand soldiers.
The position Nevsky chose for the battle was not chosen by chance. First of all, it made it possible to block all approaches to Novgorod. Most likely, Nevsky understood that knights in heavy armor were the most vulnerable in winter conditions.
Livonian warriors lined up in a fighting wedge, popular at that time, placing heavy knights on the flanks and light knights inside the wedge. This formation was called the “great pig” by Russian chroniclers. How Alexander positioned his army is unknown to historians. At the same time, the knights decided to advance into battle without having accurate information about the enemy army.
The guard regiment was attacked by a knightly wedge, which then moved on. However, the advancing knights soon encountered many unexpected obstacles on their way.
The knight's wedge was clamped in pincers, losing its maneuverability. With the attack of the ambush regiment, Alexander finally tipped the scales to his side. The Livonian knights, who were dressed in heavy armor, became completely helpless without their horses. Those who were able to escape were pursued according to chronicle sources “to the Falcon Coast.”
Having won the Battle of the Ice, Alexander Nevsky forced the Livonian Order to renounce all territorial claims and make peace. Warriors who were captured in the battle were returned by both sides.
It should be noted that the event called the Battle of the Ice is considered unique. For the first time in history, a foot army was able to defeat heavily armed cavalry. Of course, quite important factors that determined the outcome of the battle were surprise, terrain and weather conditions, which the Russian commander took into account.
Fragment of video illustration: Battle on the Ice
Losses
Monument to the squads of A. Nevsky on Mount Sokolikha
The issue of the losses of the parties in the battle is controversial. The Russian losses are spoken of vaguely: “many brave warriors fell.” Apparently, the losses of the Novgorodians were really heavy. The losses of the knights are indicated by specific numbers, which cause controversy. Russian chronicles, followed by domestic historians, say that about five hundred knights were killed, and the miracles were “beschisla”; fifty “brothers,” “deliberate commanders,” were allegedly taken prisoner. Four hundred to five hundred killed knights is a completely unrealistic figure, since there was no such number in the entire Order.
According to the Livonian chronicle, for the campaign it was necessary to gather “many brave heroes, brave and excellent,” led by the master, plus Danish vassals “with a significant detachment.” The Rhymed Chronicle specifically says that twenty knights were killed and six were captured. Most likely, the “Chronicle” means only “brothers”-knights, without taking into account their squads and the Chud recruited into the army. The Novgorod First Chronicle says that 400 “Germans” fell in the battle, 50 were taken prisoner, and “chud” is also discounted: “beschisla.” Apparently, they suffered really serious losses.
So, it is possible that 400 German cavalry soldiers (of which twenty were real “brothers” knights) actually fell on the ice of Lake Peipus, and 50 Germans (of which 6 “brothers”) were captured by the Russians. “The Life of Alexander Nevsky” claims that the prisoners then walked next to their horses during the joyful entry of Prince Alexander into Pskov.
The immediate site of the battle, according to the conclusions of the expedition of the USSR Academy of Sciences led by Karaev, can be considered a section of Warm Lake, located 400 meters west of the modern shore of Cape Sigovets, between its northern tip and the latitude of the village of Ostrov. It should be noted that the battle on a flat surface of ice was more advantageous for the heavy cavalry of the Order, however, it is traditionally believed that the place for meeting the enemy was chosen by Alexander Yaroslavich.
Consequences
According to the traditional point of view in Russian historiography, this battle, together with the victories of Prince Alexander over the Swedes (July 15, 1240 on the Neva) and over the Lithuanians (in 1245 near Toropets, near Lake Zhitsa and near Usvyat), was of great importance for Pskov and Novgorod, holding back the pressure of three serious enemies from the west - at the very time when the rest of Rus' suffered great losses from princely strife and the consequences of the Tatar conquest. In Novgorod, the Battle of the Germans on the Ice was remembered for a long time: together with the Neva victory over the Swedes, it was remembered in the litanies of all Novgorod churches back in the 16th century.
The English researcher J. Funnel believes that the significance of the Battle of the Ice (and the Battle of the Neva) is greatly exaggerated: “Alexander did only what numerous defenders of Novgorod and Pskov did before him and what many did after him - namely, rushed to protect the extended and vulnerable borders from invaders." Russian professor I.N. Danilevsky also agrees with this opinion. He notes, in particular, that the battle was inferior in scale to the battles of Siauliai (city), in which the Lithuanians killed the master of the order and 48 knights (20 knights died on Lake Peipsi), and the battle of Rakovor in 1268; Contemporary sources even describe the Battle of the Neva in more detail and give it higher value. However, even in the “Rhymed Chronicle,” the Battle of the Ice is clearly described as a defeat of the Germans, unlike Rakovor.
Memory of the battle
Movies
Music
The score for Eisenstein's film, composed by Sergei Prokofiev, is a symphonic suite dedicated to the events of the battle.
Monument to Alexander Nevsky and Worship Cross
The bronze worship cross was cast in St. Petersburg at the expense of patrons of the Baltic Steel Group (A. V. Ostapenko). The prototype was the Novgorod Alekseevsky Cross. The author of the project is A. A. Seleznev. The bronze sign was cast under the direction of D. Gochiyaev by the foundry workers of JSC "NTTsKT", architects B. Kostygov and S. Kryukov. When implementing the project, fragments from the lost wooden cross by sculptor V. Reshchikov were used.
Cultural and sports educational raid expedition
Since 1997, an annual raid expedition has been conducted to the sites of military feats of Alexander Nevsky's squads. During these trips, participants in the race help improve areas related to monuments of cultural and historical heritage. Thanks to them, memorial signs were installed in many places in the North-West in memory of the exploits of Russian soldiers, and the village of Kobylye Gorodishche became known throughout the country.
Notes
Literature
Links
- On the issue of writing the concept of the “Battle on the Ice” museum-reserve, Gdov, November 19-20, 2007.
- Place of the victory of Russian troops over German knights in 1242 // Monuments of history and culture of Pskov and the Pskov region, under state protection
Prince of Novgorod (1236-1240, 1241-1252 and 1257-1259), and later the Grand Duke of Kiev (1249-1263), and then Vladimir (1252-1263), Alexander Yaroslavich, known in our historical memory as Alexander Nevsky, - one of the most popular heroes in the history of Ancient Rus'. Only Dmitry Donskoy and Ivan the Terrible can compete with him. Big role in this they played the brilliant film of Sergei Eisenstein “Alexander Nevsky”, which turned out to be in tune with the events of the 40s of the last century, and in lately also the “Name of Russia” competition, in which the prince won a posthumous victory over other heroes of Russian history.
The glorification of Alexander Yaroslavich by the Russian Orthodox Church as a noble prince is also important. Meanwhile, popular veneration of Alexander Nevsky as a hero began only after the Great Patriotic War. Before that, even professional historians paid much less attention to him. For example, in pre-revolutionary general courses Russian history often does not mention the Battle of the Neva and the Battle of the Ice at all.
Nowadays, a critical and even neutral attitude towards a hero and a saint is perceived by many in society (both in professional circles and among history buffs) as very painful. However, active debate continues among historians. The situation is complicated not only by the subjectivity of each scientist’s view, but also by the extreme complexity of working with medieval sources.
All information in them can be divided into repetitive (quotes and paraphrases), unique and verifiable. Accordingly, you need to trust these three types of information to varying degrees. Among other things, the period from approximately the middle of the 13th to the middle of the 14th century is sometimes called “dark” by professionals precisely because of the scarcity of the source base.
In this article we will try to consider how historians evaluate the events associated with Alexander Nevsky, and what, in their opinion, is his role in history. Without delving too deeply into the arguments of the parties, we will nevertheless present the main conclusions. Here and there, for convenience, we will divide part of our text about each major event into two sections: “for” and “against”. In reality, of course, there is a much greater range of opinions on each specific issue.
Battle of Neva
The Battle of the Neva took place on July 15, 1240 at the mouth of the Neva River between the Swedish landing force (the Swedish detachment also included a small group of Norwegians and warriors of the Finnish tribe Em) and the Novgorod-Ladoga squad in alliance with the local Izhora tribe. Estimates of this collision, like the Battle of the Ice, depend on the interpretation of the data from the First Novgorod Chronicle and the “Life of Alexander Nevsky”. Many researchers treat information in life with great distrust. Scientists also differ on the question of the dating of this work, on which the reconstruction of events greatly depends.
For
The Battle of the Neva is a fairly large battle that was of great importance. Some historians even talked about an attempt to blockade Novgorod economically and close access to the Baltic. The Swedes were led by the son-in-law of the Swedish king, the future Earl Birger and/or his cousin Earl Ulf Fasi. The sudden and quick attack of the Novgorod squad and Izhora warriors on the Swedish detachment prevented the creation of a stronghold on the banks of the Neva, and, possibly, a subsequent attack on Ladoga and Novgorod. This was a turning point in the fight against the Swedes.
6 Novgorod warriors distinguished themselves in the battle, whose exploits are described in the “Life of Alexander Nevsky” (there are even attempts to connect these heroes with specific people known from other Russian sources). During the battle, the young Prince Alexander “put a seal on his face,” that is, he wounded the Swedish commander in the face. For his victory in this battle, Alexander Yaroslavich subsequently received the nickname “Nevsky”.
Against
The scale and significance of this battle are clearly exaggerated. There was no talk of any kind of blockade. The skirmish was clearly minor, since, according to sources, 20 or less people died in it on the Russian side. True, we can only talk about noble warriors, but this hypothetical assumption is unprovable. Swedish sources do not mention the Battle of the Neva at all.
It is characteristic that the first large Swedish chronicle - “Eric's Chronicle”, which was written much later than these events, mentioning many Swedish-Novgorod conflicts, in particular the destruction of the Swedish capital of Sigtuna in 1187 by Karelians incited by the Novgorodians, is silent about this event.
Naturally, there was no talk of an attack on Ladoga or Novgorod either. It is impossible to say exactly who led the Swedes, but Magnus Birger, apparently, was in a different place during this battle. It is difficult to call the actions of Russian soldiers fast. The exact location of the battle is unknown, but it was located on the territory of modern St. Petersburg, and from it to Novgorod it is 200 km in a straight line, and it takes longer to walk over rough terrain. But it was still necessary to gather the Novgorod squad and connect somewhere with the Ladoga residents. This would take at least a month.
It is strange that the Swedish camp was poorly fortified. Most likely, the Swedes were not going to go deeper into the territory, but to baptize the local population, for which they had clergymen with them. This is what determines great attention, devoted to the description of this battle in the “Life of Alexander Nevsky”. The story about the Battle of the Neva in the life is twice as long as about the Battle of the Ice.
For the author of the life, whose task is not to describe the deeds of the prince, but to show his piety, we are talking, first of all, not about military, but about spiritual victory. It is hardly possible to talk about this clash as a turning point if the struggle between Novgorod and Sweden continued for a very long time.
In 1256, the Swedes again tried to strengthen themselves on the coast. In 1300 they managed to build the Landskrona fortress on the Neva, but a year later they abandoned it due to constant enemy raids and the difficult climate. The confrontation took place not only on the banks of the Neva, but also on the territory of Finland and Karelia. Suffice it to recall the Finnish winter campaign of Alexander Yaroslavich in 1256-1257. and campaigns against the Finns by Earl Birger. Thus, in best case scenario we can talk about stabilization of the situation for several years.
The description of the battle as a whole in the chronicle and in the “Life of Alexander Nevsky” should not be taken literally, since it is full of quotations from other texts: “The Jewish War” by Josephus, “The Acts of Eugenius”, “Trojan Tales”, etc. As for the duel between Prince Alexander and the leader of the Swedes, almost the same episode with a wound to the face appears in “The Life of Prince Dovmont,” so this plot is most likely transferable.
Some scientists believe that the life of the Pskov prince Dovmont was written earlier than the life of Alexander and, accordingly, the borrowing came from there. Alexander’s role is also unclear in the scene of the death of part of the Swedes on the other side of the river - where the prince’s squad was “impassable.”
Perhaps the enemy was destroyed by Izhora. The sources speak of the death of the Swedes from the angels of the Lord, which is very reminiscent of an episode from the Old Testament (the 19th chapter of the Fourth Book of Kings) about the destruction by an angel of the Assyrian army of King Sennacherib.
The name “Nevsky” appears only in the 15th century. More importantly, there is a text in which the two sons of Prince Alexander are also called “Nevsky”. Perhaps these were proprietary nicknames, meaning the family owned land in the area. In sources close in time to the events, Prince Alexander bears the nickname “Brave”.
Russian-Livonian conflict 1240 - 1242 and Battle on the Ice
The famous battle, known to us as the “Battle of the Ice,” took place in 1242. In it, troops under the command of Alexander Nevsky and German knights with their subordinate Estonians (Chud) met on the ice of Lake Peipus. There are more sources for this battle than for the Battle of the Neva: several Russian chronicles, “The Life of Alexander Nevsky” and the “Livonian Rhymed Chronicle,” reflecting the position of the Teutonic Order.
For
In the 40s of the 13th century, the papacy organized a crusade to the Baltic states, in which Sweden (Battle of the Neva), Denmark and the Teutonic Order took part. During this campaign in 1240, the Germans captured the Izborsk fortress, and then on September 16, 1240, the Pskov army was defeated there. According to the chronicles, between 600 and 800 people died. Next, Pskov was besieged, which soon capitulated.
As a result, the Pskov political group led by Tverdila Ivankovich submits to the Order. The Germans rebuild the Koporye fortress and raid the Vodskaya land, controlled by Novgorod. The Novgorod boyars ask the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav Vsevolodovich to return them to reign young Alexander Yaroslavich, expelled by “lesser people” for reasons unknown to us.
Prince Yaroslav first offers them his other son Andrei, but they prefer to return Alexander. In 1241, Alexander, apparently, with an army of Novgorodians, Ladoga residents, Izhorians and Karelians, conquered the Novgorod territories and took Koporye by storm. In March 1242, Alexander with a large army, including Suzdal regiments brought by his brother Andrei, expelled the Germans from Pskov. Then fighting transferred to enemy territory in Livonia.
The Germans defeat the advance detachment of Novgorodians under the command of Domash Tverdislavich and Kerbet. Alexander's main troops retreat to the ice of Lake Peipsi. There, on Uzmen, at the Raven Stone (the exact place is unknown to scientists, discussions are ongoing) on April 5, 1242, a battle takes place.
The number of Alexander Yaroslavich's troops is at least 10,000 people (3 regiments - Novgorod, Pskov and Suzdal). The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle says that there were fewer Germans than Russians. True, the text uses rhetorical hyperbole that there were 60 times fewer Germans.
Apparently, the Russians carried out an encirclement maneuver, and the Order was defeated. German sources report that 20 knights died and 6 were captured, and Russian sources tell of German losses of 400-500 people and 50 prisoners. Countless people died. The Battle of the Ice was a major battle that significantly influenced the political situation. In Soviet historiography it was even customary to talk about “the largest battle of the early Middle Ages.”
Against
The version of a general crusade is doubtful. The West at that time did not have sufficient forces or a general strategy, which is confirmed by the significant difference in time between the actions of the Swedes and the Germans. In addition, the territory, which historians conventionally call the Livonian Confederation, was not united. Here were the lands of the archbishoprics of Riga and Dorpat, the possessions of the Danes and the Order of the Sword (since 1237, the Livonian Landmaster of the Teutonic Order). All these forces were in very complex, often conflicting relationships with each other.
The knights of the order, by the way, received only a third of the lands they conquered, and the rest went to the church. There were difficult relations within the order between the former swordsmen and the Teutonic knights who came to reinforce them. The policies of the Teutons and former Swordsmen in the Russian direction were different. Thus, having learned about the beginning of the war with the Russians, the head of the Teutonic Order in Prussia, Hanrik von Winda, dissatisfied with these actions, removed the Landmaster of Livonia, Andreas von Woelven, from power. The new Landmaster of Livonia, Dietrich von Gröningen, after the Battle of the Ice, made peace with the Russians, freeing all occupied lands and exchanging prisoners.
In such a situation, there could be no talk of any united “Onslaught on the East”. Clash 1240-1242 - this is the usual struggle for spheres of influence, which either intensified or subsided. Among other things, the conflict between Novgorod and the Germans is directly related to Pskov-Novgorod politics, first of all, with the history of the expulsion of the Pskov prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich, who found refuge with the Dorpat Bishop Herman and tried to regain the throne with his help.
The scale of the events appears to have been somewhat exaggerated by some modern scholars. Alexander acted carefully so as not to completely ruin relations with Livonia. So, having taken Koporye, he executed only the Estonians and the leaders, and released the Germans. Alexander's capture of Pskov is actually the expulsion of two knights of the Vogts (that is, judges) with their retinue (hardly more than 30 people), who were sitting there under an agreement with the Pskovites. By the way, some historians believe that this treaty was actually concluded against Novgorod.
In general, Pskov’s relations with the Germans were less conflictual than those of Novgorod. For example, Pskovites took part in the Battle of Siauliai against the Lithuanians in 1236 on the side of the Order of the Swordsmen. In addition, Pskov often suffered from German-Novgorod border conflicts, since German troops sent against Novgorod often did not reach Novgorod lands and plundered closer Pskov possessions.
The “Battle of the Ice” itself took place on the lands not of the Order, but of the Dorpat Archbishop, so most The troops most likely consisted of his vassals. There is reason to believe that a significant part of the Order’s troops were simultaneously preparing for war with the Semigallians and Curonians. In addition, it is usually not customary to mention that Alexander sent his troops to “disperse” and “live”, that is, in modern language, to plunder the local population. The main method of conducting a medieval war was to inflict maximum economic damage on the enemy and capture booty. It was during the “dispersal” that the Germans defeated the advance detachment of the Russians.
Specific details of the battle are difficult to reconstruct. Many modern historians believe that the German army did not exceed 2,000 people. Some historians speak of only 35 knights and 500 foot soldiers. The Russian army may have been somewhat larger, but it was unlikely to be significant. The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle only reports that the Germans used a “pig”, that is, a wedge formation, and that the “pig” broke through the Russian formation, which had many archers. The knights fought bravely, but they were defeated, and some of the Dorpatians fled to save themselves.
As for losses, the only explanation why the data in the chronicles and the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle differ is the assumption that the Germans counted only losses among full-fledged knights of the Order, and the Russians counted the total losses of all Germans. Most likely, here, as in other medieval texts, reports about the number of dead are very conditional.
Even the exact date of the “Battle on the Ice” is unknown. The Novgorod Chronicle gives the date April 5, the Pskov Chronicle – April 1, 1242. And whether it was “ice” is unclear. In the “Livonian Rhymed Chronicle” there are the words: “On both sides the dead fell on the grass.” The political and military significance of the Battle of the Ice has also been exaggerated, especially in comparison with the larger battles of Siauliai (1236) and Rakovor (1268).
Alexander Nevsky and the Pope
One of the key episodes in the biography of Alexander Yaroslavich is his contacts with Pope Innocent IV. Information about this is in two bulls of Innocent IV and “The Life of Alexander Nevsky”. The first bull is dated January 22, 1248, the second – September 15, 1248.
Many believe that the fact of the prince’s contacts with the Roman Curia greatly harms his image as an irreconcilable defender of Orthodoxy. Therefore, some researchers even tried to find other recipients for the Pope's messages. They offered either Yaroslav Vladimirovich, an ally of the Germans in the 1240 war against Novgorod, or the Lithuanian Tovtivil, who reigned in Polotsk. However, most researchers consider these versions to be unfounded.
What was written in these two documents? In the first message, the Pope asked Alexander to notify him through the brothers of the Teutonic Order in Livonia about the offensive of the Tatars in order to prepare for resistance. In the second bull to Alexander “the most serene prince of Novgorod”, the Pope mentions that his addressee agreed to join true faith and even allowed it to be built in Pleskov, that is, in Pskov, cathedral and perhaps even establish an episcopal see.
No reply letters have been preserved. But from the “Life of Alexander Nevsky” it is known that two cardinals came to the prince to persuade him to convert to Catholicism, but received a categorical refusal. However, apparently, for some time Alexander Yaroslavich maneuvered between the West and the Horde.
What influenced his final decision? It is impossible to answer precisely, but the explanation of the historian A. A. Gorsky seems interesting. The fact is that, most likely, the second letter from the Pope did not reach Alexander; at that moment he was on his way to Karakorum, the capital of the Mongol Empire. The prince spent two years on the trip (1247 - 1249) and saw the power of the Mongol state.
When he returned, he learned that Daniel of Galicia, who received the royal crown from the Pope, did not receive the promised help from the Catholics against the Mongols. In the same year, the Catholic Swedish ruler Jarl Birger began the conquest of Central Finland - the lands of the Em tribal union, which was previously part of the sphere of influence of Novgorod. And finally, the mention of the Catholic Cathedral in Pskov was supposed to evoke unpleasant memories of the conflict of 1240 - 1242.
Alexander Nevsky and the Horde
The most painful point in discussing the life of Alexander Nevsky is his relationship with the Horde. Alexander did travel to Sarai (1247, 1252, 1258 and 1262) and Karakorum (1247-1249). Some hotheads declare him almost a collaborator, a traitor to the fatherland and Motherland. But, firstly, such a formulation of the question is a clear anachronism, since such concepts did not even exist in the Old Russian language of the 13th century. Secondly, all the princes went to the Horde for labels to reign or for other reasons, even Daniil Galitsky, who offered direct resistance to it for the longest time.
The Horde people, as a rule, received them with honor, although the chronicle of Daniil Galitsky stipulates that “Tatar honor is worse than evil.” The princes had to observe certain rituals, walk through lit fires, drink kumiss, worship the image of Genghis Khan - that is, do things that desecrated a person according to the concepts of a Christian of that time. Most of the princes and, apparently, Alexander too, submitted to these demands.
Only one exception is known: Mikhail Vsevolodovich of Chernigov, who in 1246 refused to obey and was killed for it (canonized according to the rank of martyrs at the council of 1547). In general, events in Rus', starting from the 40s of the 13th century, cannot be considered in isolation from the political situation in the Horde.
One of the most dramatic episodes of Russian-Horde relations occurred in 1252. The course of events was as follows. Alexander Yaroslavich goes to Sarai, after which Batu sends an army led by commander Nevryuy (“Nevryuev’s army”) against Andrei Yaroslavich, Prince Vladimirsky - Alexander’s brother. Andrei flees from Vladimir to Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, where their younger brother Yaroslav Yaroslavich rules.
The princes manage to escape from the Tatars, but Yaroslav’s wife dies, the children are captured, and “countless” ordinary people are killed. After Nevryuy's departure, Alexander returns to Rus' and sits on the throne in Vladimir. There are still discussions about whether Alexander was involved in Nevruy’s campaign.
For
The English historian Fennell has the harshest assessment of these events: “Alexander betrayed his brothers.” Many historians believe that Alexander specifically went to the Horde to complain to the khan about Andrei, especially since similar cases are known from a later time. The complaints could be the following: Andrei, the younger brother, unfairly received the great reign of Vladimir, taking for himself his father’s cities, which should belong to the eldest of the brothers; he does not pay extra tribute.
The subtlety here was that Alexander Yaroslavich, being the Great Prince of Kyiv, formally had more power than the Grand Duke of Vladimir Andrei, but in fact Kyiv, devastated back in the 12th century by Andrei Bogolyubsky and then by the Mongols, had by that time lost its significance , and therefore Alexander sat in Novgorod. This distribution of power was consistent with the Mongol tradition, according to which the younger brother receives the father's property, and the older brothers conquer the lands for themselves. As a result, the conflict between the brothers was resolved in such a dramatic way.
Against
There are no direct references to Alexander’s complaint in the sources. The exception is Tatishchev’s text. But recent research has shown that this historian did not use, as previously thought, unknown sources; he did not distinguish between the retelling of the chronicles and his comments. The statement of complaint appears to be the writer's commentary. Analogies with later times are incomplete, since later princes who successfully complained to the Horde themselves took part in punitive campaigns.
Historian A. A. Gorsky offers the following version of events. Apparently, Andrei Yaroslavich, relying on the label for the reign of Vladimir, received in 1249 in Karakorum from the khansha Ogul-Gamish, hostile to Sarai, tried to behave independently of Batu. But in 1251 the situation changed.
Khan Munke (Mengu) comes to power in Karakorum with the support of Batu. Apparently, Batu decides to redistribute power in Rus' and summons the princes to his capital. Alexander is going, but Andrey is not. Then Batu sends Nevryu’s army against Andrei and at the same time Kuremsa’s army against his rebellious father-in-law Daniil Galitsky. However, for a final resolution of this controversial issue, as usual, there are not enough sources.
In 1256-1257, a population census was carried out throughout the Great Mongol Empire in order to streamline taxation, but it was disrupted in Novgorod. By 1259, Alexander Nevsky suppressed the Novgorod uprising (for which some in this city still do not like him; for example, the outstanding historian and leader of the Novgorod archaeological expedition V.L. Yanin spoke very harshly about him). The prince ensured that the census was carried out and that the “exit” was paid (as tribute to the Horde is called in sources).
As we see, Alexander Yaroslavich was very loyal to the Horde, but then this was the policy of almost all princes. In a difficult situation, compromises had to be made with the irresistible power of the Great Mongol Empire, about which the papal legate Plano Carpini, who visited Karakorum, noted that only God could defeat them.
Canonization of Alexander Nevsky
Prince Alexander was canonized at the Moscow Council of 1547 among the faithful.
Why did he become revered as a saint? There are different opinions on this matter. So F.B. Schenk, who wrote basic research about the change in the image of Alexander Nevsky over time, states: “Alexander became the founding father of a special type of Orthodox holy princes who earned their position primarily through secular deeds for the benefit of the community...”.
Many researchers prioritize the prince’s military successes and believe that he was revered as a saint who defended the “Russian land.” Also interesting is the interpretation of I.N. Danilevsky: “Under the conditions of terrible trials that befell the Orthodox lands, Alexander was perhaps the only secular ruler who did not doubt his spiritual righteousness, did not waver in his faith, and did not renounce his God. Refusing joint actions with Catholics against the Horde, he unexpectedly becomes the last powerful stronghold of Orthodoxy, the last defender of the entire Orthodox world.
Could the Orthodox Church not recognize such a ruler as a saint? Apparently, this is why he was canonized not as a righteous man, but as a faithful (listen to this word!) prince. The victories of his direct heirs in the political field consolidated and developed this image. And the people understood and accepted this, forgiving the real Alexander for all the cruelties and injustices.”
And finally, there is the opinion of A.E. Musin, a researcher with two educations - historical and theological. He denies the importance of the prince’s “anti-Latin” policy, loyalty to the Orthodox faith and social activities in his canonization, and tries to understand what qualities of Alexander’s personality and features of life became the reason for his veneration by the people of medieval Rus'; it began much earlier than the official canonization.
It is known that by 1380 the veneration of the prince had already taken shape in Vladimir. The main thing that, according to the scientist, was appreciated by his contemporaries is “the combination of the courage of a Christian warrior and the sobriety of a Christian monk.” Another important factor was the very unusualness of his life and death. Alexander may have died of illness in 1230 or 1251, but he recovered. He was not supposed to become a Grand Duke, since he initially occupied second place in the family hierarchy, but his older brother Fedor died at the age of thirteen. Nevsky died strangely, having taken monastic vows before his death (this custom spread to Rus' in the 12th century).
In the Middle Ages they loved unusual people and passion-bearers. The sources describe miracles associated with Alexander Nevsky. The incorruptibility of his remains also played a role. Unfortunately, we don’t even know for sure whether the prince’s real relics have been preserved. The fact is that in the lists of the Nikon and Resurrection Chronicles of the 16th century it is said that the body burned down in a fire in 1491, and in the lists of the same chronicles for the 17th century it is written that it was miraculously preserved, which leads to sad suspicions.
The choice of Alexander Nevsky
Recently, the main merit of Alexander Nevsky is considered not to be the defense of the northwestern borders of Rus', but, so to speak, the conceptual choice between the West and the East in favor of the latter.
For
Many historians think so. Often given famous saying Eurasian historian G.V. Vernadsky from his journalistic article “Two Labors of St. Alexander Nevsky": "...with his deep and brilliant hereditary historical instinct, Alexander understood that in his historical era the main danger to Orthodoxy and the originality of Russian culture came from the West, and not from the East, from Latinism, and not from Mongolism."
Further, Vernadsky writes: “Alexander’s submission to the Horde cannot be assessed otherwise than as a feat of humility. When the times and deadlines were fulfilled, when Rus' gained strength, and the Horde, on the contrary, was crushed, weakened and weakened, and then Alexander’s policy of subordination to the Horde became unnecessary... then the policy of Alexander Nevsky naturally had to turn into the policy of Dmitry Donskoy.”
Against
Firstly, such an assessment of the motives of Nevsky’s activities - an assessment based on the consequences - suffers from the point of view of logic. He could not have foreseen the further development of events. In addition, as I. N. Danilevsky ironically noted, Alexander did not choose, but he was chosen (Batu chose), and the choice of the prince was “a choice for survival.”
In some places Danilevsky speaks out even more harshly, believing that Nevsky’s policy influenced the duration of Rus'’s dependence on the Horde (he refers to the successful struggle of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with the Horde) and, along with the earlier policy of Andrei Bogolyubsky, on the formation of the type of statehood of the North-Eastern Rus' as a “despotic monarchy”. Here it is worth citing a more neutral opinion of the historian A. A. Gorsky:
“In general, it can be stated that in the actions of Alexander Yaroslavich there is no reason to look for some kind of conscious fateful choice. He was a man of his era, acted in accordance with the worldview of the time and personal experience. Alexander was, in modern terms, a “pragmatist”: he chose the path that seemed more profitable to him for strengthening his land and for him personally. When it was a decisive battle, he fought; when an agreement with one of Rus'’s enemies seemed most useful, he agreed to an agreement.”
"Favorite Childhood Hero"
This is how one of the sections was named critical article about Alexander Nevsky, historian I.N. Danilevsky. I confess that for the author of these lines, along with Richard I the Lionheart, he was a favorite hero. The “Battle on the Ice” was “reconstructed” in detail with the help of soldiers. So the author knows exactly how it all really happened. But if we speak coldly and seriously, then, as was said above, we do not have enough data for a holistic assessment of the personality of Alexander Nevsky.
As is most often the case when studying early history, we more or less know that something happened, but often we don’t know and will never know how. The author’s personal opinion is that the argumentation of the position, which we conventionally designated as “against,” looks more serious. Perhaps the exception is the episode with “Nevryuev’s Army” - nothing can be said for sure there. The final conclusion remains with the reader.
Soviet Order of Alexander Nevsky, established in 1942.
Bibliography
Lyrics
1. Alexander Nevsky and the history of Russia. Novgorod. 1996.
2. Bakhtin A.P. Internal and foreign policy problems of the Teutonic Order, in Prussia and Livonia in the late 1230s - early 1240s. Battle on the Ice in the Mirror of the Age//Collection scientific works dedicated 770th anniversary of the Battle of Lake Peipsi. Comp. M.B. Bessudnova. Lipetsk. 2013 pp. 166-181.
3. Begunov Yu.K. Alexander Nevsky. The life and deeds of the holy noble Grand Duke. M., 2003.
4. Vernadsky G.V. Two labors of St. Alexander Nevsky // Eurasian temporary book. Book IV. Prague, 1925.
5. Gorsky A.A. Alexander Nevsky.
6. Danilevsky I.N. Alexander Nevsky: Paradoxes of historical memory // "Chain of Times": Problems historical consciousness. M.: IVI RAS, 2005, p. 119-132.
7. Danilevsky I.N. Historical reconstruction: between text and reality (thesis).
8. Danilevsky I.N. Battle on the Ice: change of image // Otechestvennye zapiski. 2004. - No. 5.
9. Danilevsky I.N. Alexander Nevsky and the Teutonic Order.
10. Danilevsky I.N. Russian lands through the eyes of contemporaries and descendants (XII-XIV centuries). M. 2001.
11. Danilevsky I.N. Modern Russian discussions about Prince Alexander Nevsky.
12. Egorov V.L. Alexander Nevsky and the Genghisids // Domestic History. 1997. No. 2.
13. Prince Alexander Nevsky and his era: Research and materials. St. Petersburg 1995.
14. Kuchkin A.V. Alexander Nevsky – statesman and commander of medieval Rus' // Domestic History. 1996. No. 5.
15. Matuzova E. I., Nazarova E. L. Crusaders and Rus'. End of XII – 1270. Texts, translation, commentary. M. 2002.
16. Musin A.E. Alexander Nevsky. The mystery of holiness.// Almanac "Beauty", Veliky Novgorod. 2007. No. 1. P.11-25.
17. Rudakov V.N. “He worked hard for Novgorod and for the whole Russian land” Book review: Alexander Nevsky. Sovereign. Diplomat. Warrior. M. 2010.
18. Uzhankov A.N. Between two evils. Historical choice of Alexander Nevsky.
19. Fennel. D. The crisis of medieval Rus'. 1200-1304. M. 1989.
20. Florya B.N. At the origins of the confessional schism of the Slavic world ( Ancient Rus' and its western neighbors in the 13th century). In the book: From the history of Russian culture. T. 1. (Ancient Rus'). – M. 2000.
21. Khrustalev D.G. Rus' and Mongol invasion(20-50s of the 13th century) St. Petersburg. 2013.
22. Khrustalev D.G. Northern Crusaders. Rus' in the struggle for spheres of influence in the Eastern Baltics in the 12th – 13th centuries. vol. 1, 2. St. Petersburg. 2009.
23. Schenk F. B. Alexander Nevsky in Russian cultural memory: Saint, ruler, national hero (1263–2000) / Authorized trans. with him. E. Zemskova and M. Lavrinovich. M. 2007.
24. Urban. W.L. The Baltic Crusade. 1994.
Video
1. Danilevsky I.G. Historical reconstruction between text and reality (lecture)
2. Hour of Truth - Golden Horde - Russian Choice (Igor Danilevsky and Vladimir Rudakov) 1st episode.
3. Hour of Truth - Horde Yoke - Versions (Igor Danilevsky and Vladimir Rudakov)
4. Hour of Truth - Frontiers of Alexander Nevsky. (Petr Stefanovich and Yuri Artamonov)
5. Battle on the ice. Historian Igor Danilevsky about the events of 1242, about Eisenstein’s film and the relationship between Pskov and Novgorod.
Ice battle
On April 5, 1242, the Russian army led by Prince Alexander Nevsky defeated the Livonian knights in the Battle of the Ice on the ice of Lake Peipsi.
However, the defeat of the Swedes on the Neva did not completely eliminate the danger hanging over Russia: the threat from the north, from the Swedes, was replaced by a threat from the west, from the Germans.
Back in the 12th century, the advance of German knightly detachments from East Prussia to the east was noted. In pursuit of new lands and free labor, under the guise of the intention to convert pagans to Christianity, crowds of German nobles, knights and monks went east. With fire and sword they suppressed the resistance of the local population, sitting comfortably on their lands, building castles and monasteries here and imposing exorbitant taxes and tribute on the people. By the beginning of the 13th century, the entire Baltic region was in the hands of German rapists. The population of the Baltic states groaned under the whip and yoke of warlike aliens.
And already in the early autumn of 1240, the Livonian knights invaded the Novgorod possessions and occupied the city of Izborsk. Soon Pskov shared his fate - the Germans were helped to take it by the betrayal of the Pskov mayor Tverdila Ivankovich, who went over to the side of the Germans. Having subjugated the Pskov volost, the Germans built a fortress in Koporye. This was an important bridgehead that made it possible to control the Novgorod trade routes along the Neva and plan further advance to the East. After this, the Livonian aggressors invaded the very center of the Novgorod possessions, captured Luga and the Novgorod suburb of Tesovo. In their raids they came within 30 kilometers of Novgorod. Disregarding past grievances, Alexander Nevsky at the request of the Novgorodians, at the end of 1240 he returned to Novgorod and continued the fight against the invaders. The following year, he recaptured Koporye and Pskov from the knights, returning most of their western possessions to the Novgorodians. But the enemy was still strong, and the decisive battle was still ahead. 
In the spring of 1242, reconnaissance of the Livonian Order was sent from Dorpat (the former Russian Yuryev, now the Estonian city of Tartu) in order to test the strength of the Russian troops. 18 versts south of Dorpat, the order's reconnaissance detachment managed to defeat the Russian "dispersal" under the command of Domash Tverdislavich and Kerebet. This was a reconnaissance detachment moving ahead of the army of Alexander Yaroslavich in the direction of Dorpat. The surviving part of the detachment returned to the prince and reported to him about what had happened. The victory over a small detachment of Russians inspired the order's command. He developed a tendency to underestimate Russian forces and became convinced that they could be easily defeated. The Livonians decided to give battle to the Russians and for this they set out from Dorpat to the south with their main forces, as well as their allies, led by the master of the order himself. The main part of the troops consisted of knights clad in armor.
The Battle of Lake Peipsi, which went down in history as Ice battle, began on the morning of April 5, 1242. At sunrise, noticing a small detachment of Russian riflemen, the knightly “pig” rushed towards him. Alexander contrasted the German wedge with the Russian heel - a formation in the form of the Roman numeral "V", that is, the angle with the hole facing the enemy. This very hole was covered by a “brow”, consisting of archers, who took the main blow of the “iron regiment” and with courageous resistance noticeably disrupted its advance. Still, the knights managed to break through the defensive formations of the Russian “chela”. A fierce hand-to-hand fight ensued. And at its very height, when the “pig” was completely drawn into the battle, at a signal from Alexander Nevsky, the regiments of the left and right hands hit its flanks with all their might. Not expecting the appearance of such Russian reinforcements, the knights were confused and, under their powerful blows, began to gradually retreat. And soon this retreat took on the character of a disorderly flight. Then suddenly, from behind cover, a cavalry ambush regiment rushed into battle. The Livonian troops suffered a crushing defeat. 
The Russians drove them across the ice for another seven miles to the western shore of Lake Peipsi. 400 knights were destroyed and 50 were captured. Some of the Livonians drowned in the lake. Those who escaped from the encirclement were pursued by Russian cavalry, completing their defeat. Only those who were in the tail of the “pig” and were on horseback managed to escape: the master of the order, commanders and bishops.
The victory of Russian troops under the leadership of Prince Alexander Nevsky over the German “dog knights” has important historical significance. The Order asked for peace. Peace was concluded on terms dictated by the Russians. The order's ambassadors solemnly renounced all encroachments on the Russian lands that were temporarily captured by the order. The movement of Western invaders into Rus' was stopped. The western borders of Rus', established after the Battle of the Ice, lasted for centuries. The Battle of the Ice has gone down in history as a remarkable example of military tactics and strategy. Skillful construction of the battle formation, clear organization of interaction between its individual parts, especially infantry and cavalry, constant reconnaissance and taking into account the enemy’s weaknesses when organizing the battle, right choice place and time, good organization of tactical pursuit, destruction of most of the superior enemy - all this determined Russian military art as advanced in the world.
Alexander Nevsky and Battle of the Ice
Alexander Nevsky: Brief biography
Prince of Novgorod and Kiev and Grand Duke of Vladimir, Alexander Nevsky He is best known for stopping the advance of the Swedes and the knights of the Teutonic Order into Rus'. At the same time, instead of resisting the Mongols, he paid them tribute. Many considered this position to be cowardice, but perhaps Alexander simply sensibly assessed his capabilities.
Son Yaroslav II Vsevolodovich, The Grand Duke of Vladimir and all-Russian leader, Alexander, was elected Prince of Novgorod in 1236 (a primarily military position). In 1239 he married Alexandra, daughter of the Prince of Polotsk.
Some time ago, the Novgorodians invaded Finnish territory, which was under the control of the Swedes. In response to this, and also wanting to block Russian access to the sea, in 1240 the Swedes invaded Rus'.
Alexander won a significant victory over the Swedes at the mouth of the Izhora River, on the banks of the Neva, as a result of which he received the honorary nickname Nevsky. However, a few months later, Alexander was expelled from Novgorod due to a conflict with the Novgorod boyars.
A little later, the Pope Gregory IX began to call on the Teutonic knights to “Christianize” the Baltic region, although the peoples living there were already Christians. In the face of this threat, Alexander was invited to return to Novgorod, and, after several skirmishes, in April 1242, he won a famous victory over the knights on the ice of Lake Peipsi. Thus, Alexander stopped the eastward advance of both the Swedes and the Germans.
But there was another serious problem in the east. Mongol troops conquered most of Russia, which was not politically unified at the time. Alexander's father agreed to serve the new Mongol rulers, but died in September 1246. As a result of this, the throne of the Grand Duke was free and Alexander and his younger brother Andrei went to Batu(Batu), Mongol Khan of the Golden Horde. Batu sent them to the great Kagan, who, perhaps out of spite to Batu, who preferred Alexander, violating Russian custom, appointed Andrei Grand Duke of Vladimir. Alexander became the Prince of Kyiv.
Andrei entered into a conspiracy with other Russian princes and western neighbors against the Mongol rulers and Alexander took the opportunity to denounce his brother to Sartak, the son of Batu. Sartak sent an army to overthrow Andrei and Alexander soon took his place as Grand Duke.
As Grand Duke, Alexander sought to restore the prosperity of Rus' by building fortifications, temples, and passing laws. He continued to control Novgorod with the help of his son Vasily. This violated the established traditions of government in Novgorod (veche and invitation to reign). In 1255, the inhabitants of Novgorod expelled Vasily, but Alexander gathered an army and returned Vasily back to the throne.
In 1257, in connection with the upcoming census and taxation, an uprising broke out in Novgorod. Alexander helped force the city into submission, probably fearing that the Mongols would punish all of Rus' for Novgorod's actions. In 1262, uprisings began to occur against Muslim tribute collectors from the Golden Horde, but Alexander managed to avoid reprisals by going to Sarai, the Horde's capital on the Volga, and discussing the situation with the khan. He also achieved the release of Rus' from the obligation to supply soldiers for the Khan's army.
On the way home, Alexander Nevsky died in Gorodets. After his death, Rus' fell apart into warring principalities, but his son Daniil received the principality of Moscow, which ultimately led to the reunification of the northern Russian lands. In 1547, the Russian Orthodox Church canonized Alexander Nevsky.
Ice battle
The Battle of the Ice (Lake Peipus) occurred on April 5, 1242, during the Northern Crusades (12-13 centuries).
Armies and Generals
Crusaders
- Herman of Dorpat
- 1,000 – 4,000 people
- Prince Alexander Nevsky
- Prince Andrei II Yaroslavich
- 5,000 – 6,000 people
Battle on the Ice - background
In the thirteenth century, the papacy attempted to force Orthodox Christians living in the Baltic region to accept papal sovereignty. Despite the fact that previous efforts were unsuccessful, in the 1230s a new attempt was made to create a church state in the Baltic states.
Preaching the Crusade in the late 1230s, William of Modena organized a Western coalition to invade Novgorod. This papal action against Rus' coincided with the desire of the Swedes and Danes to expand their territories to the east, so both states began to supply troops for the campaign, as did the knights of the Teutonic Order.
The trading center of the region, Novgorod, like most of Rus', was invaded by the Mongols in the recent past (the Novgorod lands were only partially devastated, and the Mongols did not attack Novgorod itself lane). Formally remaining independent, Novgorod accepted Mongol rule in 1237. The Western invaders hoped that the Mongol invasion would distract the attention of Novgorod and that this would be the right time to attack.
In the spring of 1240, Swedish troops began advancing into Finland. Alarmed residents of Novgorod called the recently exiled Prince Alexander back to the city to lead the army (Alexander was expelled and called back after the Battle of the Neva lane). Having planned a campaign against the Swedes, Alexander defeated them in the Battle of the Neva and received an honorary title Nevsky.
Campaign in the South
Although the Crusaders were defeated in Finland, they had better luck in the south. Here, at the end of 1240, the mixed forces of the knights of the Livonian and Teutonic orders, Danish, Estonian and Russian troops managed to capture Pskov, Izborsk, and Koporye. But in 1241, Alexander conquered the eastern lands of the Neva, and in March 1242 he liberated Pskov.
Wanting to strike back at the crusaders, he launched a raid on the lands of the Order that same month. Having finished this, Alexander began to retreat to the East. Having gathered his troops in this region together, Hermann, Bishop of Dorpat, went in pursuit.
Ice battle
Although Hermann's troops were smaller in number, they were better equipped than their Russian opponents. The chase continued, and on April 5, Alexander’s army set foot on the ice of Lake Peipus. Crossing the lake at its narrowest point, he looked for a good defensive position and it turned out to be the eastern shore of the lake, with ice blocks protruding from the uneven ground. Turning around at this point, Alexander lined up his army, placing the infantry in the center and the cavalry on the flanks. Arriving on the west bank, the crusader army formed a wedge, placing heavy cavalry at the head and on the flanks.
Moving on the ice, the crusaders reached the location of Alexander's Russian army. Their progress slowed as they had to overcome rough terrain and suffered casualties from archers. When both armies collided, hand-to-hand combat began. As the battle raged, Alexander ordered his cavalry and horse archers to attack the crusaders' flanks. Rushing forward, they soon successfully surrounded Herman's army and began beating him. As the battle took such a turn, many of the crusaders began to fight their way back across the lake.
According to myths, the crusaders began to fall through the ice, but most likely there were few who failed. Seeing that the enemy was retreating, Alexander allowed them to pursue him only to the western shore of the lake. Having been defeated, the crusaders were forced to flee to the West.
Consequences of the Battle of the Ice
While Russian casualties are not known with any certainty, it is estimated that about 400 Crusaders died and another 50 were captured. After the battle, Alexander offered generous peace terms, which were quickly accepted by Germanus and his allies. Defeats on the Neva and Lake Peipsi effectively stopped the West's attempts to subjugate Novgorod. Based on a minor event, the Battle of the Ice subsequently formed the basis of Russian anti-Western ideology. This legend was promoted by the film Alexander Nevsky, filmed by Sergei Eisenstein in 1938.
The legend and iconography of the Battle of the Ice was used for propaganda purposes during World War II as a description of Russia's defense against German invaders.