The world of the European Middle Ages was distinguished by the isolation of its way of life, which led to the coexistence of several independent and parallel cultural trends. In rare cities, new customs arose, knightly castles lived their own lives, peasants adhered to rural traditions, and the Christian Church sought to spread theological ideas. This motley picture of medieval life gave rise to two architectural styles: Romanesque and Gothic. Romanesque architecture originated in the 10th century, marking a period of calm after numerous internecine wars. This style is considered the first pan-European one, which sets it apart from other post-Roman styles of architecture.
Romanesque art
Romanesque style is a European style of architecture and art of the 11th-12th centuries, characterized by massiveness and majesty. Its emergence is associated with the revival of church construction. When the period of decline ended, monastic orders began to appear, complex forms of liturgies arose, which required the construction of new spacious buildings and improvements in construction techniques.
Thus, simultaneously with the development of early Christianity, the Romanesque style also developed in the architecture of the Middle Ages.
Romanesque and Gothic styles
The Gothic style is considered the successor to the Romanesque. Its birthplace was France, and its origin dates back to the middle of the 12th century. Gothic quickly spread throughout Europe and dominated there until the 16th century.
The name of the style comes from the name of the Gothic tribes. During the Renaissance, it was believed that it was they who created medieval architecture. Romanesque and Gothic styles are strikingly different, despite their close existence.
Gothic buildings are famous for their airiness and lightness, cross vaults, spiers reaching into the sky, pointed arches and openwork decor. Some of these features appeared in the late period of Romanesque art, but they reached their highest peak in Gothic style. Until the 16th century. prevailed in Europe and Gothic architecture actively developed.
Romanesque and Gothic styles, thus, are two stages of architectural development of the Middle Ages, reflecting the peculiarities of life and government of that time.
Religious buildings in the Romanesque style
Romanesque architecture has a harsh serf-like character; its examples are fortresses, monasteries, castles located on hills and intended for defense. The paintings and reliefs of such structures had semi-fairy-tale plots, reflected divine omnipotence and were largely borrowed from folklore.
The Romanesque style in architecture, like all art of the Middle Ages, reflects the cultural and economic stagnation of Western European countries. This is due to the fact that the achievements of the Romans in the construction craft were lost, and the level of technology decreased significantly. But gradually, as feudalism developed, new types of buildings began to emerge: fortified feudal dwellings, monastic complexes, basilicas. The latter acted as the basis for religious construction.
The basilica of the Middle Ages took a lot from late Roman architecture during the formation of the early Christian temple. Such buildings represent an architectural composition with an elongated space, which is divided into several naves by rows of columns. In the middle nave, which was wider than the others and better consecrated, an altar was installed. Often the courtyard building was surrounded by galleries - an atrium, where the baptismal cup was located. The Basilicas of St. Apollinaris in Ravenna and St. Paul in Rome are early Romanesque architecture.
Romanesque art gradually developed, and in basilicas they began to increase the space intended for the altar and choir, new rooms appeared, and the naves began to be divided into tiers. And by the 11th century. a traditional scheme for the construction of such structures was formed.
Construction techniques
Improvements in construction were caused by a number of pressing problems. Thus, wooden floors suffering from constant fires were replaced with vaulted structures. Cylindrical and cross vaults began to be erected over the main naves, and this required strengthening the wall supports. The main achievement of Romanesque architecture was the development of a structural scheme that involved directing the main forces - with the help of girth arches and cross vaults - to certain points and dividing the wall into the wall itself and buttresses (pillars), located in places where the thrust forces reached the greatest pressure. A similar design formed the basis of Gothic architecture.
The peculiarities of the Romanesque style in architecture are manifested in the fact that architects tend to place the main vertical supports outside the outer walls. Gradually this principle of differentiation becomes mandatory.
The material for construction most often was limestone, as well as other rocks that the surrounding area was rich in: granite, marble, brick and volcanic rubble. The laying process was simple: small hewn stones were held together with mortar. Dry techniques were never used. The stones themselves could be of different lengths and heights and were carefully processed only on the front side.
Examples of the Romanesque style in architecture: Dudley (England) and Sully (France) castles, St. Mary's Church (Germany), Stirling Castle (Scotland).
Romanesque buildings
The Romanesque style in the architecture of the Middle Ages is distinguished by a wide variety of trends. Each region of Western Europe contributed its own artistic tastes and traditions to the development of local art. Thus, the Romanesque buildings of France are different from the German ones, and the German ones are equally different from the Spanish ones.
Romanesque architecture of France
The enormous contribution of France to the development of Romanesque architecture is associated with the organization and layout of the altar part of church buildings. Thus, the appearance of the chapel crown is associated with the establishment of the tradition of daily reading of the Mass. The first building with such an innovation is considered to be the church at the Benedictine monastery "Saint-Flibert", built in the 12th century.
The Romanesque style in French architecture gradually adapted to the conditions of the surrounding reality. For example, to protect buildings from constant attacks by the Magyars, fire-resistant structures were created; To accommodate a large number of parishioners, the internal and external spaces of the cathedrals were gradually rebuilt and remodeled.
Romanesque architecture in Germany
The Romanesque style in Germany was developed by three main schools: Rhenish, Westphalian and Saxon.
The Saxon school is distinguished by the dominance of basilica-type buildings with flat ceilings, characteristic of the period of early Christianity. The experience of church architecture in France was often used. Thus, the monastery church in Cluny, made in the Basilican form and having flat wooden ceilings, was taken as a prototype for many buildings. Such continuity is determined by the influence of the French Benedictine order.
The interiors were characterized by calm and simple proportions. Unlike French churches, Saxon buildings did not have a circle in the choir, but the supports alternated: columns were installed between square pillars, or two pillars were replaced by two columns. Examples of such buildings are the Church of St. Godenhard (Hildesheim) and the Cathedral in the city of Quedlinburg. This arrangement of supports divided the internal space of the temple into several separate cells, which gave the entire decoration originality and unique charm.
Performed by the Saxon school, Romanesque architecture acquired simplicity and clarity of geometric shapes. The decor was small and sparse, the interior was austere, the windows were located sparsely and at a great height - all this gave the buildings a serf-like and austere character.
The Westphalia school specialized in the construction of hall-type churches, which were a space divided into three equal-height naves with stone vaults. An example of such a structure is the Chapel of St. Bartholomew (Paderborn), built in the 11th century. The churches of the Westphalian school were built without a clear and proportional division of space into parts, that is, the composition of the facades did not reflect the comparison of the parts of the building and its volumes. The buildings were also distinguished by the absence of any sculptural decorations.
A description of the Romanesque style in architecture would be incomplete without mentioning the Rhenish school. Here the main emphasis is on the structural features of the floors. They were constructed according to the “linked Romanesque system”, the essence of which was that the vaults of the side naves rested on the spread of the middle one. Thus, the supports alternated: massive pillars supported the arch of the main hall, and light intermediate supports bore the weight of the side ones.
In the cathedrals and churches of the Rhenish school, architectural decoration was also as sparse as possible. Decorative arcades were often built outside, as, for example, in the Speyer Cathedral, the appearance of which, despite its simplicity, is distinguished by very expressive forms. In a word, the German Romanesque style personified stern grandeur and power.
The Romanesque architectural style was the epitome of the feudal period in history. And it was in the monuments of medieval Germany that the monumentality and gloomy inviolability of this era reached its peak.
Romanesque architecture in Italy
As with the architecture of other European countries, the architecture of Italy was varied. Everything depended on the traditions and living conditions of the region in which the structure was built. Thus, the provinces of the northern part of the country created their own style, characterized by monumentality. It arose under the influence of the Romanesque style of France, the palace architecture of Germany and is associated with the advent of brick construction techniques.
The Romanesque architecture of the northern Italian provinces is characterized by powerful arcaded facades, dwarf galleries located under the cornice, portals, the columns of which stood on animal sculptures. Examples of such buildings are the Church of San Michele (Padua), the cathedrals of Parma and Modena of the 11th-12th centuries.
The architects of Florence and Pisa created a distinctive and cheerful version of the Romanesque style. Due to the fact that these areas were rich in marble and stone, almost all structures were made from these reliable materials. The Florentine style was largely the heir to Roman architecture, and cathedrals were often decorated in an antique style.
As for Rome itself and the south of Italy, these areas played virtually no role in the formation of Romanesque architecture.
Architecture of Normandy
After the adoption of Christianity, the Church established clear requirements for the construction of temples and cathedrals that embodied Romanesque art. The Romanesque style, characterized by cumbersome buildings, was not used to excesses and impracticality by the Vikings, who sought to reduce it to the necessary minimum. The builders immediately rejected massive cylindrical vaults, preferring rafter ceilings.
A striking example of Romanesque architecture in Normandy are the churches of the abbeys of Sante Trinite (nunnery) and Sante Etienne (monastery). At the same time, the Trinity Church (11th century) is considered the first building in Europe where a two-span cross vault was designed and installed.
The greatest merit of the Norman school is that, in accordance with centuries-old traditions and experience of frame construction, it creatively rethought borrowed structures and building plans.
Romanesque architecture in England
After the Normans conquered England, they changed their policy style to a creative one. And as a sign of political and cultural unity, they came up with two types of buildings: a castle and a church.
Romanesque architecture was quickly adopted by the British and accelerated construction activity in the country. The first building erected was Westminster Abbey. This structure included the middle cross tower, paired towers located in the west, and three eastern apses.
The 11th century for England was marked by the construction of many church buildings, including Winchester, Canterbury Cathedrals, St. Edmond's Abbey and many other buildings in the Romanesque style. Many of these buildings were later reconstructed and remodeled, but from the surviving documents and remains of ancient structures one can imagine the impressive monumentality and appearance of the buildings.
The Normans turned out to be skilled builders of castles and fortresses, and the Tower is one of the clearest proofs of this. This fortification, built by order of William, became the most impressive structure of that era. Subsequently, this combination of a residential building and a defensive fortification became widespread in Europe.
The Romanesque style in England is usually called Norman due to the fact that the construction was carried out by the Vikings, realizing their architectural plans. But gradually the orientation of the created structures towards defense and fortification was replaced by a desire for decoration and luxury. And by the end of the 12th century. the Romanesque style gave way to Gothic.
Romanesque architecture of Belarus
The Romanesque style in the architecture of Belarus arose after the adoption of Christianity, when Byzantine architects began to build churches in accordance with the European tradition.
Since the 11th century. Towers, castles, temples, monasteries, and city houses began to appear in the country, made in the style we are considering. These buildings were distinguished by their massiveness, monumentality and severity, and were decorated with sculptures and geometric patterns.
However, today very few monuments of Romanesque architecture have survived. This is due to the fact that many buildings were destroyed during frequent wars, or were reconstructed in subsequent years. For example, the St. Sophia Cathedral (Polotsk), built in the middle of the 11th century, has come to us in a greatly rebuilt form, and today it is not possible to determine its original appearance.
The architecture of Belarus at that time was distinguished by the use of a large number of construction techniques and techniques. The most famous and striking examples are the Cathedral of the Spaso-Efrosyne Monastery (Polotsk), the Church of the Annunciation (Vitebsk), and the Borisoglebskaya Church (Grodno). These buildings combine the features of ancient Russian architecture and the basilica inherent in the Romanesque style.
Thus, already in the 12th century. The Romanesque style began to gradually penetrate the Slavic lands and transform the architecture of Belarus.
Conclusion
Thus, the Romanesque style in architecture began to emerge during the Middle Ages (V - X centuries), and it manifested itself in different European countries in different ways, depending on geographical, political and national characteristics. Throughout that era, different architectural trends existed and developed in parallel, practically without touching, which led to the originality and uniqueness of buildings in various European countries.
During the Middle Ages, the Romanesque style had a great influence on the formation of monastic complexes, which included a temple, hospitals, refectories, libraries, bakeries and many other buildings. In turn, these complexes influenced the structure and layout of urban buildings. But the direct development of city fortifications began in the subsequent period, when Gothic already reigned.
Romanesque style is an artistic style that dominated Western Europe, and also affected some countries of Eastern Europe, in the 11th-12th centuries (in a number of places - in the 13th century), one of the most important stages in the development of medieval European art.
The development of Romanesque architecture was associated with monumental construction that began in Western Europe during the formation and prosperity of feudal states, the revival of economic activity and the new growth of culture and art. The monumental architecture of Western Europe arose in the art of barbarian peoples. Such are, for example, the tomb of Theodoric in Ravenna (526-530), church buildings of the late Carolingian era - the court chapel of Charlemagne in Aachen (795-805), the church in Gernrod of the Ottonian period with its plastic integrity of large masses (second half of the 10th century) .
Tomb of Theodoric in Ravenna
Combining classical and barbaric elements, distinguished by austere grandeur, it prepared the formation of the Romanesque style, which subsequently developed purposefully over the course of two centuries. In each country, this style developed under the influence and strong influence of local traditions - ancient, Syrian, Byzantine, Arab.
The main role in the Romanesque style was given to harsh fortress architecture: monastery complexes, churches, castles. The main buildings during this period were the temple-fortress and the castle-fortress, located on elevated places, dominating the area.
Romanesque buildings are characterized by a combination of a clear architectural silhouette and laconic exterior decoration - the building always fit harmoniously into the surrounding nature, and therefore looked especially durable and solid. This was facilitated by massive walls with narrow window openings and stepped-recessed portals. Such walls had a defensive purpose.
The main buildings during this period were the temple-fortress and the castle-fortress. The main element of the composition of a monastery or castle is the tower - the donjon. Around it were the rest of the buildings, made up of simple geometric shapes - cubes, prisms, cylinders.
Features of the architecture of the Romanesque cathedral:
- The plan is based on an early Christian basilica, that is, a longitudinal organization of space
- Enlargement of the choir or eastern altar of the temple
- Increasing the height of the temple
- Replacement of coffered (cassette) ceilings with stone vaults in the largest cathedrals. The vaults were of several types: box, cross, often cylindrical, flat on beams (typical of Italian Romanesque architecture).
- Heavy vaults required powerful walls and columns
- The main motive of the interior is semicircular arches
Chapel of Penitents. Beaulieu-sur-Dordogne.
Germany.
Germany occupied a special place in the construction of large cathedrals in the 12th century. powerful imperial cities on the Rhine (Speier, Mainz, Worms). The cathedrals erected here are distinguished by the grandeur of their massive, clear cubic volumes, the abundance of heavy towers, and more dynamic silhouettes.
In Worms Cathedral (1171-1234, ill. 76), built of yellow-gray sandstone, the divisions of volumes are less developed than in French churches, which creates a feeling of solidity of forms. Such a technique as a gradual increase in volumes and smooth linear rhythms is also not used. The squat towers of the middle cross and four high round towers, as if cutting into the sky, with cone-shaped stone tents at the corners of the temple on the western and eastern sides give it the character of a stern fortress. Smooth surfaces of impenetrable walls with narrow windows dominate everywhere, only sparingly enlivened by a frieze in the form of arches along the cornice. Weakly protruding lysen (blades - vertical flat and narrow projections on the wall) connect the arched frieze, plinth and galleries in the upper part. In Worms Cathedral, the pressure of the vaults on the walls is relieved. The central nave is covered with a cross vault and is brought into line with the cross vaults of the side naves. For this purpose, the so-called “connected system” was used, in which for each bay of the central nave there are two side bays. The edges of the external forms clearly express the internal volumetric-spatial structure of the building.
Worms Cathedral of St. Peter
Abbey Maria Laach, Germany
Libmurg Cathedral, Germany
Bamberg Cathedral, east facade with two towers and polygonal choirs
France.
Most monuments of Romanesque art them in France, which in the 11th-12th centuries. was not only the center of philosophical and theological movements, but also the widespread dissemination of heretical teachings, which to a certain extent overcame the dogmatism of the official church. In the architecture of Central and Western France there is the greatest diversity in solving structural problems and a wealth of forms. It clearly expresses the features of a Romanesque style temple.
An example of it is the Church of Notre-Dame la Grande in Poitiers (11-12 centuries). This is a hall, low, dimly lit church, with a simple plan, with a slightly protruding transept, with a poorly developed choir, framed by only three chapels. Almost equal in height, the three naves are covered with semi-cylindrical vaults and a common gable roof. The central nave is immersed in twilight - light penetrates into it through the sparsely located windows of the side naves. The heaviness of the forms is emphasized by a squat three-tiered tower above the middle cross. The lower tier of the western façade is divided by a portal and two semi-circular arches extending into the thickness of the steppe. The upward movement, expressed by small pointed towers and a stepped pediment, is stopped by horizontal friezes with sculptures of saints. Rich ornamental carvings, typical of the Poitou school, spread across the surface of the wall, softening the severity of the structure. In the grandiose churches of Burgundy, which took first place among other French schools, the first steps were taken to change the design of vaulted ceilings in the type of basilica church with a high and wide middle nave, with many altars, transverse and side ships, an extensive choir and a developed, radially located crown chapel The high, three-tiered central nave was covered with a box vault, not with a semi-circular arch, as in most Romanesque churches, but with light pointed outlines.
An example of this complex type is the grandiose main five-nave monastery church of the Abbey of Cluny (1088-1107), destroyed at the beginning of the 19th century. Serving as the center of activity for the powerful Cluny order in the 11th and 12th centuries, it became a model for many temple buildings in Europe.
She is close to the churches of Burgundy: in Parais le Manial (early 12th century), Vezede (first third of the 12th century) and Autun (first third of the 12th century). They are characterized by the presence of a wide hall located in front of the naves and the use of high towers. Burgundian churches are distinguished by the perfection of forms, clarity of dissected volumes, regularity of rhythm, completeness of parts, and their subordination to the whole.
Monastic Romanesque churches are usually small in size, with low vaults and small transepts. With a similar layout, the design of the facades was different. For the southern regions of France, near the Mediterranean Sea, the temples of Provence (in the past, an ancient Greek colony and a Roman province) are characterized by a connection with ancient late Roman order architecture, monuments of which have been preserved here in abundance; hall temples, simple in form and proportions, prevailed, distinguished by the richness of sculptural decoration facades, sometimes reminiscent of Roman triumphal arches (the Church of Saint-Trophime in Arles, 12th century). Modified domed buildings penetrated into the southwestern regions.
Priory of Serrabona, France
Italy.
There was no stylistic unity in Italian architecture. This is largely due to the fragmentation of Italy and the attraction of its individual regions to the culture of Byzantium or Romanesque - those countries with which they were connected by long-term economic and cultural communication. Local late antique and early Christian traditions, the influence of the art of the medieval West and East determined the originality of the Romanesque architecture of the advanced schools of Central Italy - the cities of Tuscany and Lombardy, in the 11th-12th centuries. freed from feudal dependence and began extensive construction of city cathedrals. Lombard architecture played an important role in the development of the vaulted structure and skeleton of the building.
In the architecture of Tuscany, the ancient tradition was manifested in the completeness and harmonious clarity of forms, in the festive appearance of the majestic ensemble in Pisa. It includes the five-nave Pisa Cathedral (1063-1118), the baptistery (baptistery, 1153 - 14th centuries), the inclined bell tower - campanile (Leaning Tower of Pisa, begun in 1174, completed in the 13-14th centuries) and the Camio cemetery -Santo.
Each building stands out freely, standing out with the simple closed volumes of a cube and cylinder and the sparkling white of marble on a green grass-covered square near the shore of the Tyrrhenian Sea. Proportionality has been achieved in the breakdown of masses. Graceful white marble Romanesque arcades with Roman-Corinthian and composite capitals divide the façade and outer walls of all buildings into tiers, lightening their massiveness and emphasizing the structure. The large cathedral gives the impression of lightness, which is enhanced by the inlays of colored marble of dark red and dark green (a similar decor was characteristic of Florence, where the so-called “inlay style” became widespread). The elliptical dome above the central cross completed its clear and harmonious image.
Pisa Cathedral, Italy
Stirling Castle, unknown builders, 11th-12th centuries, Scotland
Emergence
This name appeared only around 1820, but it quite accurately determines that until the middle of the 13th century. Elements of Roman-antique architecture were strongly felt.
The Romanesque period in Europe occurred during the reign of the feudal system, the basis of which was agriculture. Initially, all the lands belonged to the king, he distributed them among his vassals, and they, in turn, distributed it to the peasants for cultivation. For the use of land, everyone was obliged to pay taxes and perform military service. Peasants tied to the land supported the masters, who in turn served in the king's troops. Thus a complex interdependent relationship arose between masters and peasants, with peasants at the bottom of the social ladder.
Since each feudal lord sought to expand his possessions, conflicts and wars were fought almost constantly. As a result, the central royal power lost its position, which led to the fragmentation of states. Expansionist aspirations were especially clearly expressed in the Crusades and the enslavement of the Slavic East.
Construction features
| Predominant and fashionable colors | Brown, red, green, white |
| Romanesque lines | Barrel, semi-circular, straight, horizontal and vertical |
| Form | Rectangular, cylindrical |
| Characteristic interior elements | Semi-circular frieze, repeating geometric or floral pattern; halls with exposed ceiling beams and supports in the center |
| Constructions | Stone, massive, thick-walled; wooden plastered with visible skeleton |
| Windows | Rectangular, small, in stone houses - arched |
| Romanesque style doors | Plank, rectangular with massive hinges, lock and deadbolt |
Historical characteristics
Romanesque architecture uses a variety of building materials. In the early period, not only residential buildings, but monasteries and churches were built from wood, but in the Middle Ages stone became the main building material. At first it was used only in the construction of temples and fortresses, and later for buildings of a secular nature. Easily processed limestone, deposits of which were located in areas along the Loire, due to its relative lightness, made it possible to cover small spans with vaults without constructing bulky scaffolding. It was also used for ornamental masonry of external walls.
In Italy there was a lot of marble, which was especially often used for wall cladding. Multicolored marble in light and dark tones, used in various spectacular combinations, becomes a characteristic feature of Italian Romanesque architecture.
The stone was either hewn in the form of blocks, from which the so-called plank masonry was made, or rubble, suitable for laying walls when it was necessary to strengthen structures externally lined with slabs and blocks of cut stone. Unlike antiquity, in the Middle Ages smaller stones were used, which were easier to obtain from a quarry and deliver to the construction site.
Where stone was lacking, brick was used, which was somewhat thicker and shorter than what is used today. Brick of that time was usually very hard, heavily fired. Brick buildings from the Romanesque period survive primarily in Italy, France, Germany and England.
Characteristics
An important task of Romanesque building art was the transformation of a basilica with a flat wooden ceiling into a vaulted one. At first, the vault covered the small spans of the side naves and apses; later, the main naves also began to be covered with the vault. The thickness of the vault was sometimes quite significant, so the walls and pylons were designed thick with a large margin of safety. Due to the need for large covered spaces and the development of construction technical ideas, the construction of initially heavy vaults and walls began to be gradually lightened.
A vault makes it possible to span larger spaces than wooden beams. The simplest in shape and design is the cylindrical vault, which, without moving the walls apart, presses on them from above with enormous weight, and therefore requires especially massive walls. This vault is most suitable for covering rooms with a short span, but it was often used in the main nave - in France in the regions of Provence and Auvergne (Notre-Dame du Port Cathedral in Clermont). Later, the semicircular shape of the vault arch was replaced with a pointed one. Thus, the nave of the Cathedral in Otyun (early 12th century) is covered with a pointed vault with so-called edge arches.
St. Mary's Church, 1093-1200, Laach, Germany
The basis for new types of vaults was the old Roman straight cross vault over a square room in plan, obtained by the intersection of two half-cylinders. The loads arising from this arch are distributed along the diagonal ribs, and from them are transferred to four supports at the corners of the space being covered. Initially, the ribs that appeared at the intersection of the semi-cylinders played the role of arches - they circled, which made it possible to lighten the entire structure (St. Stephen's Cathedral in Cana, 1064 - 1077; the monastery church in Lorsch - the first completely covered with basilica vaults)
If you increase the height of the vault so much that the diagonal intersection curve turns from elliptical to semicircular, you can get the so-called raised cross vault.
The vaults most often had solid masonry, which, as we said, required the construction of massive pylons. Therefore, the Romanesque composite pylon became a big step forward: semi-columns were added to the main pylon, on which the edge arches rested, and as a result, the expansion of the arch was reduced. A significant structural achievement was the distribution of the load from the vault over several specific points due to the rigid connection of the transverse edge arches, ribs and pylons. The rib and edge arch become the frame of the vault, and the pylon becomes the frame of the wall.
At a later time, the end (cheek) arches and ribs were laid out first. This design is called a ribbed cross vault. During the heyday of the Romanesque style, this vault was made higher, and its diagonal arch acquired a pointed shape (Church of the Holy Trinity in Cana, 1062 - 1066).
To cover the side naves, instead of a cross vault, semi-cylindrical vaults, very often used in civil engineering, were sometimes used. Romanesque designs are, first of all, a raised ribbed vault, a pointed arch and the suppression of oblique lateral thrusts from the vaults by a system of supports. They create the basis for the subsequent Gothic style in architecture.
Types of structures
A significant role in the emergence, and especially in the spread of Romanesque art, was played by the monastic orders that arose in large numbers at that time, especially the Benedictine order, founded in the 6th century. in Monte Cassino, and the Cistercian order, which arose 100 years later. For these orders, construction crews erected one structure after another throughout Europe, accumulating more and more experience.
Monasteries, together with Romanesque churches, monastic or cathedral, parish or fortress churches, were an important part of public life in the Romanesque period. They were a powerful political and economic organization that influenced the development of all areas of culture. An example is the Cluny Monastery. At the end of the 11th century. in Cluny was modeled after the Basilica of St. Peter in Rome, a new monastery church was built, which was a huge five-nave basilica 130 m long. Its central nave was boldly covered with a 28-meter high vault, which, however, collapsed after construction was completed.
The planning decisions of the monasteries were based on universal schemes, but adapted to local conditions and the specific requirements of different monastic orders, which undoubtedly led to the enrichment of the palette of builders.
In Romanesque architecture, there were two main compositional types of church buildings. These are longitudinal buildings, sometimes very simple, rectangular in shape with an apse attached to the east side, or basilicas; centric, round buildings with regularly spaced apses are more rare.
The development of Romanesque architecture is characterized by changes in the organization of internal space and volume in general, especially in the most significant buildings of that time - the basilica. Along with the basilical organization of space, a new Romanesque type of space with identical naves or hall space is used, especially popular in Germany, Spain and the French regions between the Loire and Garonne rivers.
In the most mature buildings of that period, the internal space is complicated by apses of transverse naves, and the choir has a gallery with a system of radial chapels, for example in France and southern England (Norwich Cathedral, 1096 - 1150).
The internal space of temples is formed by connecting separate, in most cases square, spatial blocks. Such a system is an important sign of a new understanding of the organization of internal space.
The degree of impact of the basilica spaces on the visitor largely depended on the nature of the walls and the method of covering. They used either a flat ceiling, usually a beam, or cylindrical vaults, sometimes transverse, as well as domes on sails. However, what most corresponded to the then understanding of the organization of internal space was a cross vault without ribs, which enriched the interior and streamlined it without disturbing the longitudinal character of the building.
The Romanesque plan is based on simple geometric relationships. The side nave has half the width of the main nave and therefore for every square of the main nave plan there are two elements of the side naves. Between the two pylons loaded by the vault of the main nave and the vaults of the side nave, there should be a pylon that can bear the load of the vaults of the side nave only. Naturally, he may be slimmer. The alternation of massive and thinner pylons could create a rich rhythm, but the desire to eliminate differences in the sizes of the pylons was stronger: when using a six-part vault, when all the pylons were loaded evenly, they were made of the same thickness. Increasing the number of identical supports creates the impression of a longer internal space.
The apse has a rich decor, often decorated with “blind” arches, sometimes arranged in several tiers. The horizontal division of the main nave is formed by an arch and a belt of narrow high windows. The interior is decorated with paintings and enriched with overlays on the walls, “shovels”, profiled projections, architecturally processed columns and pylons.
The column retains the classic division into three parts. The surface of the column trunk is not always made smooth; very often the trunk is covered with ornaments. The capital, at first very simple in shape (in the form of an inverted pyramid or cube), is gradually enriched with various plant motifs, images of animals and figures.
Pylons, like columns, have a three-part division into a base, a trunk and a capital. In the early period they are still very massive, and later they are lightened by changing proportions and dissected surface treatment. Columns are used where the vault has a short span or low height in underground crypts or in windows when several narrow openings are combined into a group.
The appearance of the Romanesque church corresponds to its internal design. This is an architecture of simple but shaped blocks, sometimes of considerable size with small windows. The windows were made narrow not only for structural reasons, but because they began to be glazed only in the Gothic period.
As a result of the simple combination of volumes, various compositions arose. The dominant position is occupied by the volume of the main nave with a semicircular apse, with one or more transverse naves. Different types of towers are placed in different ways. Usually the bottom of them is installed on the facade, and the third, four- or octagonal, is above the intersection of the main and transverse naves. The greatest attention is paid to the western facade, which is decorated with architectural details, and often a portal with a sculptural relief. Just like the windows, the portal, due to the large thickness of the walls, is formed by ledges, in the corners of which columns and sometimes complex sculptures are installed. The part of the wall above the door lintel and below the arch of the portal is called the tympanum and is often decorated with rich relief. The upper part of the façade is divided by an arcature frieze, blades and blind arcades. Less attention was paid to the side facades. The height of Romanesque churches increases as the style develops, so that the height of the main nave from the floor to the heel of the vault usually reaches twice the width of the nave.
Development of urban settlements. The first cities in southern and western Europe arise on the site of former Roman military camps, which were military strongholds and administrative centers. They had a regular planning basis. A number of them existed in the early Middle Ages, but during that period they turned into shopping centers, which was predetermined by their location at the intersection of main roads.
Leeds Castle, unknown builders, 11th-12th centuries, England
The center of life in the early Middle Ages were the castles of powerful (secular and spiritual) feudal lords, churches and monasteries. In the cities that arose spontaneously, architecture was just in its infancy; residential buildings were made of clay or wood. The fortified castle - the home of the feudal lord and at the same time a fortress that protected his possessions - clearly expressed the nature of the formidable era of feudal wars. Its planning was based on practical calculation. Typically located on the top of a mountain or rocky hill overlooking a river or the sea, a castle served as a defense during siege and as a center for preparations for raids. The castle with a drawbridge and a fortified portal was surrounded by a moat, monolithic stone walls topped with battlements, towers and loopholes. The core of the fortress was a massive round or quadrangular tower (donjon) consisting of several floors - the refuge of the feudal lord. Around it is a vast courtyard with residential and service buildings. The picturesque compact grouping of the crystalline volumes of the castle often completed the sheer cliffs, merging with them. Rising above the squalid huts and houses, the castle was perceived as the embodiment of unshakable power.
St. Mary's Church, unknown builders, 11th century, England, Cambridge
The experience of building castles was subsequently transferred to monastic complexes, which were entire villages and fortified cities. The importance of the latter increased in the life of Europe in the 11th-13th centuries. Their layout, usually asymmetrical, strictly observed the requirements of defense, sober consideration of terrain features, etc. Typical buildings of Carolingian architecture and Romanesque art are the heavy tower of the old donjon in Loches (10th century), the castle of Gaillard on the Seine (12th century), the fortified city of Carcassonne in Provence (12th-13th centuries), the abbey of Mont Saint Michel d' Egil in France, the castle of Maurice de Sully (12th century, France), castle-palaces in Saint-Antonin, Auxerre (both first half of the 12th century, France), etc. A typical monument of the period of communal struggle in the cities of the 13th century. - formidable towers of the ancestral castles in San Jimipiapo in Italy (late 12th-early 13th centuries). The harsh beauty of these structures lies in the laconicism of powerful plastic volumes.
France. Monuments of Romanesque art are scattered throughout Western Europe. Most of them are in France, which in the 11th-12th centuries. was not only the center of philosophical and theological movements, but also the widespread dissemination of heretical teachings, which to a certain extent overcame the dogmatism of the official church. In the architecture of Central and Western France there is the greatest diversity in solving structural problems and a wealth of forms. It clearly expresses the features of a Romanesque style temple.
An example of it is the Church of Notre-Dame la Grande in Poitiers (11-12 centuries). This is a hall, low, dimly lit church, with a simple plan, with a slightly protruding transept, with a poorly developed choir, framed by only three chapels. Almost equal in height, the three naves are covered with semi-cylindrical vaults and a common gable roof. The central nave is immersed in twilight - light penetrates into it through the sparsely located windows of the side naves. The heaviness of the forms is emphasized by a squat three-tiered tower above the middle cross. The lower tier of the western façade is divided by a portal and two semi-circular arches extending into the thickness of the steppe. The upward movement, expressed by small pointed towers and a stepped pediment, is stopped by horizontal friezes with sculptures of saints. Rich ornamental carvings, typical of the Poitou school, spread across the surface of the wall, softening the severity of the structure.
In the grandiose churches of Burgundy, which took first place among other French schools, the first steps were taken to change the design of vaulted ceilings in the type of basilica church with a high and wide middle nave, with many altars, transverse and side ships, an extensive choir and a developed, radially located crown chapel The high, three-tiered central nave was covered with a box vault, not with a semi-circular arch, as in most Romanesque churches, but with light pointed outlines. A classic example of this complex type is the grandiose main five-nave monastery church of the Abbey of Cluny (1088-1107), destroyed at the beginning of the 19th century. Serving as the center of activity for the powerful Cluny order in the 11th and 12th centuries, it became a model for many temple buildings in Europe. She is close to the churches of Burgundy: in Parais le Manial (early 12th century), Vezede (first third of the 12th century) and Autun (first third of the 12th century). They are characterized by the presence of a wide hall located in front of the naves and the use of high towers.
Burgundian churches are distinguished by the perfection of forms, clarity of dissected volumes, regularity of rhythm, completeness of parts, and their subordination to the whole. Monastic Romanesque churches are usually small in size, with low vaults and small transepts. With a similar layout, the design of the facades was different. For the southern regions of France, near the Mediterranean Sea, the temples of Provence (in the past, an ancient Greek colony and a Roman province) are characterized by a connection with ancient late Roman order architecture, monuments of which have been preserved here in abundance; hall temples, simple in form and proportions, prevailed, distinguished by the richness of sculptural decoration facades, sometimes reminiscent of Roman triumphal arches (the Church of Saint-Trophime in Arles, 12th century). Modified domed buildings penetrated into the southwestern regions. The schools of Normandy, Auvergne, Poitou, Aquitaine and others had their own special features.
Germany. Germany occupied a special place in the construction of large cathedrals in the 12th century. powerful imperial cities on the Rhine (Speier, Mainz, Worms). The cathedrals erected here are distinguished by the grandeur of their massive, clear cubic volumes, the abundance of heavy towers, and more dynamic silhouettes. In Worms Cathedral (1171-1234, ill. 76), built of yellow-gray sandstone, the divisions of volumes are less developed than in French churches, which creates a feeling of solidity of forms. Such a technique as a gradual increase in volumes and smooth linear rhythms is also not used.
The squat towers of the middle cross and four high round towers, as if cutting into the sky, with cone-shaped stone tents at the corners of the temple on the western and eastern sides give it the character of a stern fortress. Smooth surfaces of impenetrable walls with narrow windows dominate everywhere, only sparingly enlivened by a frieze in the form of arches along the cornice. Weakly protruding lysen (blades - vertical flat and narrow projections on the wall) connect the arched frieze, plinth and galleries in the upper part. In Worms Cathedral, the pressure of the vaults on the walls is relieved. The central nave is covered with a cross vault and is brought into line with the cross vaults of the side naves. For this purpose, the so-called “connected system” was used, in which for each bay of the central nave there are two side bays. The edges of the external forms clearly express the internal volumetric-spatial structure of the building.
Italy. There was no stylistic unity in Italian architecture. This is largely due to the fragmentation of Italy and the attraction of its individual regions to the culture of Byzantium or Romanesque - those countries with which they were connected by long-term economic and cultural communication. Local late antique and early Christian traditions, the influence of the art of the medieval West and East determined the originality of the Romanesque architecture of the advanced schools of Central Italy - the cities of Tuscany and Lombardy, in the 11th-12th centuries. freed from feudal dependence and began extensive construction of city cathedrals. Lombard architecture played an important role in the development of the vaulted structure and skeleton of the building.
In the architecture of Tuscany, the ancient tradition was manifested in the completeness and harmonious clarity of forms, in the festive appearance of the majestic ensemble in Pisa. It includes the five-nave Pisa Cathedral (1063-1118), the baptistery (baptistery, 1153 - 14th centuries), the inclined bell tower - campanile (Leaning Tower of Pisa, begun in 1174, completed in the 13-14th centuries) and the Camio cemetery -Santo. Each building stands out freely, standing out with the simple closed volumes of a cube and cylinder and the sparkling white of marble on a green grass-covered square near the shore of the Tyrrhenian Sea. Proportionality has been achieved in the breakdown of masses. Graceful white marble Romanesque arcades with Roman-Corinthian and composite capitals divide the façade and outer walls of all buildings into tiers, lightening their massiveness and emphasizing the structure. The large cathedral gives the impression of lightness, which is enhanced by the inlays of colored marble of dark red and dark green (a similar decor was characteristic of Florence, where the so-called “inlay style” became widespread). The elliptical dome above the central cross completed its clear and harmonious image.
Leaning Tower of Pisa. For more than eight centuries, the famous tower has been “falling” on the Square of Miracles in the Italian city of Pisa. Every year the tower deviates from the vertical by one millimeter. The city's residents themselves call their falling campanile a "lingering miracle." The architectural ensemble in the Piazza dei Miracles in Pisa includes four structures: the Duomo (which means “cathedral” in Italian), the Baptistery (baptistery), the campanilla (bell tower) and the covered cemetery of Campo Santo. It was founded at the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries.
Leaning Tower of Pisa, Bonanno Diotisalvi, 1153, ext. XIV century, Italy, Pisa
According to legend, soil brought here from Palestine, from Mount Golgotha, was specially brought here for this purpose. The Gothic arcades of the cemetery are decorated with frescoes depicting the underworld and the Last Judgment. The construction of the cathedral began in 1063 (after the victorious naval battle against the Saracens at Palermo) by the then famous architects Buschetto and Rainoldo. Construction was slow then, and the cathedral took 55 years to build. The baptistery took even longer to build - as much as 120 years.
The construction of this round marble building began in the Romanesque style, to which Gothic elements were later mixed. The pulpit in the chapel is decorated with relief depicting scenes from the life of Jesus Christ. But all records for the duration of construction were broken by the campanile, the author of which is considered to be the architect Bonanno. But there are suggestions that the campanilla was designed by the same architects who built the cathedral, that is, Buschetto and Rainoldo. Most likely, they are the architects of the entire ensemble that flaunts on the Square of Miracles. And Bonanno, apparently, was just a contractor who took on the construction of the bell tower.
And so in 1173 (or 1174), under the leadership of the respected Bonanno, the construction of a bell tower began in Pisa next to the cathedral. This outstanding Romanesque building had an extraordinary fate. Having built a first floor 11 meters high and two colonnaded rings, Bonanno discovered that the bell tower deviated from the vertical by four centimeters. The master stopped work and... disappeared from the city. Some historians believe that he himself fled the city. Others believe that the city fathers, enraged by the architect’s miscalculation in not taking into account the unstable ground and, as a result, ruining the entire magnificent ensemble, expelled him. Be that as it may, Bonanno lived in poverty after that and died in complete obscurity. Work on the construction of the bell tower was resumed from time to time, and by 1233 only four floors had been built. Only a hundred years after the start of construction, in 1275, the city authorities found a daredevil who risked continuing the construction of the bell tower. When the architect Giovanni di Simoni resumed work, the deviation of the upper cornice of the tower from the vertical was 50 centimeters. And he decided to turn the tower’s drawback, its inclined position, into its main advantage. The most accurate mathematical calculations and the great skill of the architect allowed him to add another five floors to the tower. When building on it, the architect laid out the next floors, exceeding them on the inclined side by five, seven, ten centimeters. But the campanilla continued to “fall.” G. di Simoni did not dare to crown the entire structure with a bell tower - the risk was too great. Therefore, having completed the fifth colonnade floor, he stopped working. Nothing is known about his further fate. In 1350, when the deviation from the vertical was already 92 centimeters, the architect Tomaso di Andrea began work. Like his predecessor, he raised the next floor on the inclined side by 11 centimeters, and “piled” the belfry in the direction opposite to the slope. Only after this did he erect a bell tower with a bronze bell over the eight tiers of the tower. So, after 164 years, the construction of the tower was finally completed. True, it turned out to be shortened by four floors and without a roof. And according to the plan, its first floor should have been high, then 10 floors with balconies, the 12th floor should have been a belfry, and the campanile should have been crowned with a roof. The total height of the tower was assumed to be 98 meters.
Many attempts were made to save the tower. In 1936, liquid concrete, cement and glass were introduced into its foundation under pressure. In 1961, according to the project of the Polish scientist R. Cebertovich, they tried to compact loose and settling soil layers using electrokinetic processes. But none of these methods stopped the fall of the tower, which continued to tilt at its previous speed - one millimeter per year. The fate of the most famous “leaning” tower of Pisa worries the whole world. Its deviation from the vertical is already more than five meters. In April 1965, the old bell ringer Encho Gilardi climbed the 294 steps to the bell tower for the last time. Since then, its functions have been performed by an electrical device. Day and night, 100 automatic photo and film cameras are aimed at the tower, waiting for it to fall. It has already been calculated that if nothing is done, then in the next 50 years the tower will lose stability and fall. But once upon a time, from her balcony, the great Galileo Galilei carried out his experiments related to the law of free fall of bodies...
At the beginning of the second millennium, Europe stopped shaking from endless wars, devastation and disasters. The subsequent feudal fragmentation became the reason for the formation of separate independent art schools, the styles of which had similar features in spirit. During this period, the Romanesque style in art was born, dominating throughout Europe over the next two centuries. It was expressed most clearly in Italy, Germany and France.
The Romanesque style is characterized by massiveness, the absence of deliberate decoration, and the severity and severity of its appearance. Famous buildings are heavy medieval castles in the form of thick-walled fortresses. The interiors are devoid of frills and elegance.
Romanesque architecture
After a century-long decline in church building, it again began to gain momentum against the backdrop of the emergence of monastic orders and the development of complex forms of liturgy. Improved technology helped bring the early Christian ideas of the masters to life. Materials for construction were selected based on the saturation of the surrounding area with them. Limestone was most often used, in some cases - volcanic rubble, marble and granite. The simplified construction process was based on fastening small hewn stones with mortar. These stones were not subjected to painstaking selection and were processed exclusively from the outside.
Monumental architecture, as often happens after protracted wars, acquired motifs from several cultures: Syrian, Arab, Byzantine, and ancient. At the same time, the unifying style-forming features are:
- Regular cylindrical and rectangular shapes;
- Increased height of temples and ceilings;
- The space is organized longitudinally, the base is an early Christian basilica;
- Simplicity;
- Conciseness;
- Monochrome reliefs;
- Muted colors: green, white, black, gray, brown, red;
- Line shapes are standard straight, semi-circular;
- Repeating floral or geometric ornament;
- The halls have exposed ceiling beams and central supports;
- Massive structures are based on thick-walled stone structures;
- Decoration elements with a knightly theme - coats of arms, weapons, armor, torches.
Romanesque buildings are distinguished by rational simplicity of design, but the feeling of heaviness of the overall appearance gives it a depressing character. The most powerful columns and walls under the arches of semicircular arches are an integral part of the Romanesque fortress. Narrow loophole windows and high towers emphasize the bulkiness of the walls.
One of the priorities of designers of Romanesque buildings is considered to be an ideal combination with the surrounding nature, which allows emphasizing the solidity and strength of the building. The laconic decoration of the building facades, combined with a simple silhouette, highlighted the beauty of the landscape, in which the building fit harmoniously and naturally.
(Ensemble of columns of the Cathedral of Monreale)
Architectural monuments of Romanesque art are observed throughout most of Europe and in the countries where European masters worked. The most famous of them are:
- In Germany: Limburg Cathedral, St. Jacob's Church in Regensburg, Laach Abbey, Kaiser Cathedrals in Mainz, Worms and Speyer;
- In France: Priory of Serrabona, Church of North-Dame-la-Grand;
- In the UK: Oakham Castle, Ely Cathedral, Peterborough Cathedral, Malmesbury Abbey, Wincher Cathedral;
- In Portugal: Braga Cathedral, Lisbon Cathedral, Old Town Hall of Braganza, Porto Cathedral, Old Coimbra Cathedral.
Romanesque art sculpture
Sculptors of the early Middle Ages sought to embody in stone the divine essence of a complex universe. The 12th century is considered to be the dawn of this style for sculpture. Individual works of art such as sculpture were not created at that time, since Christianity feared the return of idolatry. Speaking about sculpture of the Romanesque period, we mean reliefs on tympanums, column capitals and wall frames. Sculpture completely freed from stone appears only in the last stages of the era.
The subjects of the reliefs are inextricably linked with the Bible. Favorite themes include: Apocalypse, Last Judgment, End of the World. The characters in such paintings were mythical creatures and monsters, borrowed from barbarian legends about the world of people and shadows. Another storyline identifies Jesus Christ, whose image is interpreted as the Great Judge, the incarnation of God, the Almighty.
(Sculptures of North Dame Cathedral, transition from Romanesque to Gothic style)
The compositions are dynamic, they abound in bright speaking poses of the characters. Often a clash of opposites is imagined: heaven and hell, heaven and earth, good and evil. This fight reflects the diversity of the universe, its complex structure.
Most of the Romanesque works are anonymous, so the names of the masters who created these works of art have not survived to this day.
Romanesque art painting
Despite the fact that Romanesque sculpture gravitates towards realism, in painting a formal path is chosen, devoid of realism and humanism. Technically, preference is given to linear designs, severity and majestic calm of images. The character of the Romanesque stained glass windows, altarpieces, paintings and manuscripts combines motifs from Eastern Byzantine works and Western Gothic art.
(Romanesque period painting in the Church of San Clemente)
In the depthless space of the paintings, a strict hierarchical dependence of the sizes of the elements can be traced. For example, the figure of Jesus is always larger and compositionally higher than the images of angels and apostles. Those, in turn, are larger than mere mortals. The images located in the center of the canvas are larger than those shifted to the edges. The Romanesque style is distinguished by abstractness and lack of proportions: the hands and heads are exaggerated, the bodies are elongated.
(Ornamental composition of the Romanesque period, church and medieval village, Conques, commune of France)
The Romanesque period is the era of popularization of ornamental art. Compositions representing biblical scenes from the lives of saints were depicted on large-scale walls. The figures in them are not perceived as realistic images, but have a symbolic meaning.
The Romanesque style is characterized by the use of wax painting, frescoes and tempera. But the color palette of each medieval craftsman was limited and consisted of basic colors: blue, burgundy, green, black, brown, gray.
Conclusion
Romanesque art marked the political and economic growth of Europe. The taxation of church activities and high taxes provided states with opportunities to build new temples and decorate them with frescoes, paintings and statues. Elements of art, in turn, attracted the interest of citizens and increased the profits of religious institutions.
Roman or romanesque style , which the British also call Norman, originated in the art of Western Europe in the 11th century. He expressed himself especially clearly in architecture. It became a logical continuation of the architecture of antiquity. The Romanesque style was spread by the monks. For their orders, artels of builders erected buildings in Europe. That's why The main buildings of Romanesque architecture are churches, monasteries and temples. Thus, we can once again observe how religion influenced the development of culture.
Characteristic features of Romanesque architecture
Signs of Romanesque architecture
The Roman style consists of feudal fortresses, monasteries, castles and basilicas, changed beyond recognition under its influence. The new architecture was formed in the 13th century by the Alans, Huns and Goths who arrived from the east. Wars often broke out in Europe at that time, which is why fortifications in the Romanesque style with semicircular arches, heavy walls and cross or cylindrical vaults came in very handy.
Buildings in the Romanesque style have always been distinguished by their laconicism. These clear, strong and solid buildings were in perfect harmony with the surrounding landscape, thanks to deep portals with steps, massive and even partitions, and narrow window openings. Romanesque architecture consists of buildings in the form of fortress cathedrals and palaces. In their center is a tower called a donjon, which is surrounded by cubes, prisms and cylinders of other buildings. The stone structures of temples and capitals are supported by huge pillars or pylons. Simple geometric shapes and relief or carved walls became the main features of buildings in the Roman style.
The theological character of Romanesque architecture is united by the unity and form of its proportionate and neat elements. This strict style does not recognize excesses. Its main feature was and remains practicality. But at the same time, Romanesque architecture allows rectangular and round windows with canvas shutters. Light openings in the form of trefoils, eyes and ears are also common.
What is the main thing in Romanesque architecture
Romanesque style of architecture
The Romanesque style is based on massive and enormous features. The buildings seem to show the power and authority of the owner. It's amazing how such simple and rational buildings are crushed. Romanesque architecture led to the fact that temple basilicas began to be vaulted. The walls and pylons were also distinguished by their strength and thickness. The space was organized longitudinally. The eastern altar and choir, as well as the temple itself, increased significantly in size. The coffered cathedral ceiling was replaced with stone vaults. Columns divided the naves into parts.
The walls of the Romanesque style are decorated with painted bas-reliefs. The inside of the building is often carpeted. The interior can also be decorated with embarrassed, tragic or divine sculptures. The medieval atmosphere of Romanesque architecture displaces physicality with its soul. It was she who led to the emergence of the first stained glass windows. The columns and capitals of the temples are decorated with various images and motifs.
Turkic and northern Iranian tribes enriched European culture, which is why architecture was synthesized with sculpture. The cathedral portals were crowned with stone sacred characters, which began to influence the worshipers even more.
Features of construction in the Romanesque style
The main building material of Romanesque architecture was stone. At first, fortresses and temples were built from it, but soon other secular stone buildings began to appear. Limestone deposits along French rivers made it possible to erect all the buildings of that time. They even laid out ornaments on the outer walls.
The Italians lined their walls with marble, of which they had plenty. It was hewn or made into blocks. Less stones were used for construction during the Middle Ages than during antiquity. They could easily be obtained from quarries and delivered to construction sites.
When there was a shortage of stone, brick was used, which differed from the modern one in being thicker and shorter in length. This very hard material was heavily burned. Romanesque buildings made from such bricks can still be found in England, Germany, France and Italy.
How urban settlements developed
European Romanesque cities became trading centers because they were located at the intersection of major routes. Housing here is mostly fortified, and feudal houses have the appearance of towers or fortresses.
Romanesque style in British architecture
The decor of castles in this country is minimalist. It was very difficult to erect such impressive buildings. They required large expenses, so decoration was not the main task. The stones in the castle walls are carefully fitted, which ensures the strength of such structures. Window glazing used to be a luxury, so the openings for light were made small.
English Romanesque architecture
The Romanesque style came to England with the Norman conquerors. There, instead of wooden towers, they began to erect cubic stone buildings with two floors. The archers' bivouacs were surrounded by palisades, ditches and dungeons, in which they took refuge from enemy raids. The Tower, built in 1077, is the most famous example of English Romanesque architecture. Its keep is the White Tower. From the Normans, the English adopted the combination of the monastery and the parish church, as well as the two-tower design of the western façade. Durham Cathedral is an example of this.
Examples of Roman architecture in Germany
Romanesque architecture in Germany
The German Worms Cathedral is an excellent example of Romanesque architecture. It took more than 100 years to build. Here, arched cornice friezes refresh the smooth walls and small windows. German castles in the cities of Goslar, Gelnhausen, Seeburg and Eisenach perfectly convey the spirit of the Romanesque era. Their hexagonal courtyards are surrounded by fortified partitions with fortified gates.
How did the Romanesque style affect the architecture of France, Spain and Italy?
Romanesque architecture of France
In France, architecture with a Romanesque flavor led to the appearance of pilgrimage temples with choirs and chapels. Basilicas became three-nave. The Church of Poitiers belongs to the Burgundian school of the Roman era.
In Spain, during the Romanesque period, fortifications for cities and fortress palaces began to be built. Churches and temples were similar to French ones. This is especially clearly seen in the Cathedral in Salamanca.
The Roman direction of architecture forced Italian architects to adhere to the basic and centric types for churches. Examples of this are Lombard and Tuscan cathedrals with their typical facades, which were decorated with lizens, sculptures, mini-galleries and porticoes. The Parma architectural ensemble of the baptistery, church and bell tower conveys all this.
Interior of Romanesque cathedrals from the inside
Interior of Romanesque cathedrals
Temples of the Roman period contained three halls, delimiting the parish premises. Byzantine cylindrical pillars even later moved into the Gothic direction. And the cubic capitals were intersected by balls. The walls along with them were covered with relief sculptures.
At the beginning of the tenth century, primitive stained glass windows appeared, which later turned into full-fledged paintings of multi-colored glass. At the same time, together with them, the interior began to be decorated with glass vessels and lamps.
Famous architectural monuments in the Roman style
Architectural monuments in the Romanesque style
Romanesque architecture is common throughout Western Europe. Expressive cathedral arcades, leaning towers and baptisteries can be seen in Pisa. France is famous for its domed churches. Sicily is replete with vaulted buildings with pointed arches.
Impressive and austere monuments in the Romanesque style with small doors and windows and powerful walls are sparsely decorated. These buildings are structurally simple and clear. Their largest number is located in France. Romanesque churches are calm and solemnly austere. Feudal castles in the form of fortresses have always received and saved villagers from attacks. These buildings were located on hills so that they could not only defend their possessions, but also observe them. The castles are equipped with drawbridges and fortified portals, surrounded by moats, huge stone walls with loopholes, towers and battlements.
The monastery of Saint Odile in Alsace attracts pilgrims not only with its active church, but also with a healing spring that is useful for the blind.
The Basilica of Saint-Sernin in Toulouse is a memory of the once existing abbey of the same name. Its Romanesque architecture is famous among visitors, so the church has a spacious hotel for them. The brick basilica differs from the typical stone structures in the Romanesque style. Its nave is surrounded by paths convenient for pilgrims.
The UNESCO World Heritage Site also includes Romanesque churches that are located in the Val de Boi valley. Churches in the Pyrenees bushes escaped war and are well preserved. They are the oldest Spanish buildings. Tourists get to churches along mountain serpentines to see what Romanesque architecture is like.
The Spaniards especially like to do this. The buildings were built by special architects from Lombardy. They preserved early Roman frescoes, which were transported to the National Museum of Catalonia in Barcelona. Some churches are located not only in villages, but also in the mountains. Cemeteries are located next to the temples.
The old Parisian Church of St. German in Meadows is very impressive for visiting tourists. Inside the cathedral is quiet and calm. Descartes is buried here. It seems that the Romanesque architecture of the temple helps to distract from bad thoughts. St. Herman, who performed miracles, was the protector of the poor. The church is called in the meadows due to the fact that it is located outside the city.
Cathedral of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary of the 12th century in Gurka
The 12th century Austrian Cathedral of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary in Gurka is an example of a Romanesque basilica. It has galleries, a tomb, apses and towers. The 17th century Belgian Notre-Dame Cathedral in Tournai is Wallonia's main heritage. This massive building with semicircular arches, five bell towers, a cluster and a Romanesque hall looks very strict. The 12th-century Prague rotunda of St. Longinus initially acted as a village parish church. Later it was restored, as it was destroyed.
In France, Romanesque architecture is represented by the Cathedral of St. Trophime from the 15th century in Arles, as well as the church of Saint-Savin-sur-Ghartampe from the mid-11th century. In Germany, a typical example of the era described is the 13th century imperial church in Bamberg. It is famous for its own four massive towers. The 12th century Irish Cathedral at Clonfert is topped by a Romanesque doorway. It features the heads of people and animals, as well as leaves.
Italy is famous for its 11th-century abbey in Abruzzo and the 12th-century cathedral in Modena, which is a World Heritage Site. In the Netherlands, the Basilica of St. is considered an example of Romanesque architecture. 11th century Servatia in Maastricht. And the Polish bronze doors of the 12th century cathedral in Gniezno are decorated with Romanesque bas-reliefs. There, in Kruszwitz, there is the monastery of Peter and Paul from 1120, which was built of granite and sandstone. It has an apse, presbytery and transept. The Polish St. Andrew's Church in Krakow was originally built as a defensive facility.
Lisbon Cathedral
Portugal also has its own example of Roman architecture - this is the Lisbon Cathedral of 1147. This church is the oldest in the city. It was built in a mixed style, but is best known for its Roman iron gates. In Slovakia, the Romanesque style is represented by the Cathedral of St. Martin 13th-15th centuries. There are marble tombstones and painted walls that tell the story of the coronation of Charles Robert of Anjou.
So, if we summarize all of the above, we can end with the following: romanesque architecture strongly influenced the subsequent development of culture and interior design of other periods. It gradually flowed into Gothic, then into Mannerism, and then into the avant-garde.