What are speech errors? These are any cases of deviation from language norms, which are valid. A person without knowledge of these laws can work, live, and build communications with others normally. However, in certain cases efficiency may suffer. There is a risk of being misunderstood or misunderstood. In these and other cases, you simply need to know what errors exist and how to deal with them.

Correcting speech errors in sentences is not always easy. In order to understand what exactly to pay attention to when composing this or that oral statement or written text, we created this classification. After reading this article, you will find out exactly what shortcomings will need to be corrected when you are faced with such a task.

When classifying speech errors, it would be logical to consider the fundamental criterion to be a unit of the linguistic tier - one whose norms of writing, education, and functioning were violated. The following levels are distinguished: words, phrases, sentences and text. A classification of speech errors was created using this division. This will make it easier to remember their different types.

At the word level

The word is the most important unit of language. It reflects the changes taking place in society. Words not only name a phenomenon or object, but also perform an emotionally expressive function. Therefore, when choosing which of them are appropriate in a particular case, you should pay attention to the stylistic coloring, meaning, compatibility, and usage, since violation of at least one of these criteria can lead to the appearance of a speech error.

Here you can note spelling errors, that is, a violation of spelling patterns existing in the modern Russian language. Their list is known, so we will not dwell on this in detail.

Derivatives at the word level

At the word level, there are also word-formation speech errors, that is, violations of various norms of word formation of the Russian literary language. These include the following types:

• incorrect direct word formation. An example is the use of the word "hare" instead of the right option“hares”, or “thoughtful” (instead of “thoughtful”) look and others.
• speech error associated with incorrect reverse word formation. For example, “loga” (from the word “spoon”). Such use is usually typical for children of primary school or preschool age.
• Another type is substitutive word formation, which manifests itself in the replacement of one or another morpheme: “weigh” (from the word “hang”), “throw away”, used instead of “throw away”.
• word-composition, that is, the creation of a derivative unit that cannot be considered as occasional: reviewer, spender.

All these are types of speech errors that relate to word formation.

Word-level grammatical

There are also other types of incorrect uses of words. In the Russian language, in addition to word-formation ones, there are also grammatical and speech errors. You should be able to distinguish them. Grammatical errors are the incorrect formation of various forms, a violation of the properties of the formative system in different parts of speech. These include the following varieties:

• associated with a noun. This may be the formation of the accusative case form of some inanimate noun by analogy with an animate one. For example, “She asked for a breeze” (the accusative form “breeze” should be used). Here we also include the opposite situation - the formation of the accusative case form for an animate noun in the same way as for an inanimate one. Example: “They harnessed two bears to a sleigh” (correct: “two bears”). In addition, when forming case forms, there may be a change in the gender of the noun: " February azure", "pie with jam". There are cases when indeclinable names are inclined: "to ride on the meter", "to play the piano". Some of us sometimes form forms for nouns plural, while they have only one thing, and vice versa: “a tray of teas.”
• speech errors associated with adjectives. This may be an incorrect choice of short or long forms: “The man was quite plump”, “The building was full of people". Here we also include the incorrect formation of degrees of comparison: “Lena was weaker than Lyuda,” “The new ones are becoming more and more militant.”
• Another speech error is an error associated with the verb (forms of its formation). Example: “A man is rushing around the room.”
• speech errors associated with participles and gerunds. Examples: “Looking around, a hunter walked,” “Riding on a bus.”
• confusions associated with the incorrect use of pronoun forms: “I didn’t want to tear myself away from (the book),” “Their contribution to the common cause,” and others.

Lexical at the word level

The next type of errors is lexical, that is, a violation of various lexical norms, lexical-semantic compatibility and word usage norms. They manifest themselves in the fact that compatibility is disrupted (less often in a sentence, most often at the level of a phrase).

This may be the use of a meaning that is unusual for the word. Such a speech error was made in the sentence “All the walls of the room were covered with panels” (the word “covered” cannot be used in this context). Another example: “Luxurious (that is, living in luxury) was the landowner Troekurov.”

It should be noted here that there is a violation of the lexical-semantic compatibility of a certain word: “The sky was bright” (“stand” in the meaning of “to take place” can only be used in relation to the weather), “The rays of the sun lay in the clearing” (correctly: “illuminated the clearing” ). This type of error primarily affects the verb.

In addition, one can highlight the attribution of some figurative meaning to a word that does not have one: “This man’s weary hands claim that he had to work a lot.”

The use of synonyms may also be incorrect. These are speech errors, examples of which look like this: “Mayakovsky uses satire in his work” (instead of “uses”), “With his legs spread wide, the boy looks at the football field on which the players are fighting” (correctly - “fighting”). Here we will highlight the confusion of the meanings of paronyms: “His eyebrows rose surprisingly” (instead of “surprisedly”), “This work is a typical image of the fantastic genre (that’s right - “sample”). Let’s supplement the types of speech errors with polysemy, which cannot be removed in the sentence: “Only These lakes live several days a year."

At the level of phrases

When choosing a word, you should take into account not only its meaning in literary language, but also lexical compatibility. Not all words can be combined. This is determined by their semantics, emotional coloring, stylistic affiliation, grammatical properties, etc. When it is difficult to determine whether certain words can be used together, you should turn to a compatibility dictionary. This will help to avoid errors at the level of phrases, sentences, and also text.

Errors at this level occur when there is a violation of various syntactic connections. For example, agreement: “I want to teach everyone volleyball - this is a good, but at the same time difficult sport” (a good, difficult sport). Controls: “I feel a thirst for glory”, “I am amazed at his strength”, “gain strength”. The connection between the predicate and the subject may be disrupted: “Neither heat nor summer is eternal (the singular form is used instead of the plural form “eternal”). All of these are types of speech errors at the level of phrases.

Sentence level errors

At this level we can distinguish syntactic and communicative. Let's take a closer look at these speech errors in Russian.

Sentence-level syntax errors

This may be an unjustified parcellation, a violation of structural boundaries. As an example, we can cite the following sentences with speech errors: “Seryozha went hunting. With dogs,” “I see. My dogs are running around the field. Chasing a hare.” Syntactic errors also include violations in the construction of various homogeneous rows: the choice of different forms in a row of homogeneous members: “She was smoothly combed and rosy-cheeked.” Another variety is their different structural design, for example, as a subordinate clause and as a secondary clause: “I wanted to tell you about the incident with that person and why he did so (correctly “and about his action”). There may also be a mixture of indirect and direct speech: “She said that she would definitely I will fight (here the same subject is meant - “she”, correctly - “will”). Violation in subordinate and main clauses of the aspectual-temporal correlation of predicates or homogeneous members: “She goes and said,” “When the girl was sleeping, she had a dream.” And another variation is a separation from the defining word of the subordinate clause: “One of the works is hanging in front of us, which is called “Spring.”

Communication errors at the sentence level

The next section is communicative errors, that is, violation of various norms that regulate the communicative organization of a certain utterance. They are as follows:

• actually communicative (violation of logical stress and word order, leading to false semantic connections): “The boys sat on the boat with the keel up.”
• logical-communicative (violation of such a side of the statement as the conceptual-logical). This may be a substitution of the subject performing the action (“Masha’s eyes and facial contours are captivated by the film”); substitution of the object of action (“I like Pushkin’s poems, especially the theme of love”); the combination of logically incompatible concepts in one row (“He is always serious, of average height, his hair is a little curly at the edges, not touchy”); violation of various clan-species relations (“The tone of angry meetings is not difficult to predict - angry speeches addressed to the regime, as well as calls to close ranks”); a mistake when using cause-and-effect relationships (“But he (that is, Bazarov) calmed down quickly, since he didn’t really believe in nihilism”).

• constructive and communicative, that is, violation of the laws of constructing statements. This may be a poor connection or lack of one between the parts of the statement: “They live in the village, when I visited him, I saw his blue eyes.” This also includes the use of dee participial phrase without connection with the subject related to it: “Life should be shown as it is, without worsening or embellishing it.” Another type of similar error is the break in the participial phrase: “There is little difference between the questions written on the board.”
• information-communicative, or semantic-communicative. This type is similar to the previous one, but differs in that here the deterioration of communicative properties occurs not due to incorrect, unsuccessful structuring of the utterance, but due to the absence or excess of information in it. This may be the ambiguity of the primary intention of the statement: “We are inextricably linked with the country, with it we have the main blow - a blow to the world.” One can also include his incompleteness here: “I myself adore plants, so I am happy to see that our village becomes so unrecognizable in the summer.” This may be the omission of part of the statement and necessary words, semantic redundancy (word repetitions, tautology, pleonasms, duplication of information), etc.
• stylistic errors, that is, a violation of the unity of the functional style, the use (unjustified) of stylistically marked, emotionally charged means. For example, the use of various colloquial words in literary speech, book expressions in reduced and neutral contexts, expressively colored vocabulary that is unjustified (“A couple of robbers attacked the American embassy”), unsuccessful comparisons, metonymies, metaphors.

At the text level

All errors at this level are of a communicative nature. They can be of the following types:

• logical violations are very common errors at the text level. Here we include a violation of the logic of thought, the absence of connections between sentences, a violation of various cause-and-effect relationships, operations with an object or subject, a violation of genus-species relations.
• grammatical violations. This type of error is also common. There may be a violation here different offers aspectual-temporal correlation of various verbal forms, as well as violation of agreement in the number and gender of the predicate and subject in different sentences.
• information and communication disorders. These include constructive and information-semantic insufficiency, that is, the omission of part of a statement in the text; constructive and information-semantic redundancy (in other words, an excess of meaning and a clutter of structures); inconsistency with the constructive specifications of the semantics of statements; unsuccessful use as a means of communicating pronouns; pleonasms, tautology, repetitions.

Stylistic errors in the text

Stylistic violations existing at the text level can be viewed in a similar way. It should be noted that we also include monotony and poverty among them. syntactic constructions, since texts like: “The boy was dressed very simply. He was dressed in a jacket lined with cotton wool. On his feet he was wearing moth-eaten socks” - do not indicate syntactic violations, but an inability to express thoughts in a variety of ways. At the text level, speech disorders are more complex than at the utterance level, although in the latter they are “isomorphic.” As a rule, text errors are syncretic in nature, that is, they incorrectly use the constructive, lexical, and logical aspects of a speech unit. This is natural, since the text is more difficult to construct. At the same time, we need to retain in our memory the previous statements, as well as the semantics of the entire text and the general idea, creating its continuation and completion.

The ability to find flaws in the text, as well as correcting speech errors, are important tasks that every school graduate faces. After all, in order to write a good Unified State Exam in the Russian language, you need to learn to identify all of the above types of errors and try to avoid them if possible.

The word is the most important unit of language, the most diverse and voluminous. It is the word that reflects all the changes taking place in the life of society. The word not only names an object or phenomenon, but also performs an emotionally expressive function.

And when choosing words, we must pay attention to their meaning, stylistic coloring, usage, and compatibility with other words. Since violation of at least one of these criteria can lead to a speech error.

The main causes of speech errors:

1. Misunderstanding the meaning of a word
2. Lexical compatibility
3. Use of synonyms
4. Use of homonyms
5. Use of ambiguous words
6. Verbosity
7. Lexical incompleteness of the utterance
8. New words
9. Outdated words
10. Words of foreign origin
11. Dialectisms
12. Colloquial and colloquial words
13. Professional jargon
14. Phraseologisms
15. Clichés and stamps

1. Misunderstanding of the meaning of the word.

1.1. Using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it.

Example: The fire grew hotter and hotter. The error lies in the wrong choice of word:

Inflame - 1. Heat to a very high temperature, become hot. 2. (trans.) To become very excited, to become overwhelmed by something strong feeling.

Flare up - start to burn strongly or well, evenly.

1.2. The use of significant and function words without taking into account their semantics.

Example: Thanks to the fire that broke out from the fire, a large area of ​​the forest burned down.

In modern Russian, the preposition thanks retains a certain semantic connection with the verb to thank and is usually used only in cases where the reasons that cause a desired result are spoken of: thanks to someone’s help, support. The error occurs due to the semantic distraction of the preposition from the original verb to thank. In this sentence, the preposition thanks should be replaced with one of the following: because of, as a result, as a result.

1.3. Selection of words-concepts with different bases of division (concrete and abstract vocabulary).

Example: We offer complete cure for alcoholics and other diseases.

If we are talking about diseases, then the word alcoholics should be replaced with alcoholism. An alcoholic is someone who suffers from alcoholism. Alcoholism is a painful addiction to drinking alcoholic beverages.

1.4. Incorrect use of paronyms.

Example: A person leads a festive life. I'm in an idle mood today.

Idle and festive are very similar words, with the same root. But they have different meanings: festive is an adjective for holiday (celebratory dinner, festive mood); idle - not filled, not busy, work (idle life). To restore the meaning of the statements in the example, you need to swap the words.

2. Lexical compatibility.

When choosing a word, you should take into account not only the meaning that is inherent in it in the literary language, but also lexical compatibility. Not all words can be combined with each other. The boundaries of lexical compatibility are determined by the semantics of words, their stylistic affiliation, emotional coloring, grammatical properties, etc.

Example: A good leader must set an example for his subordinates in everything. You can show an example, but not a sample. And you can be a role model, for example.

Example: Their strong friendship, tempered by life's trials, was noticed by many. The word friendship is combined with the adjective strong - strong friendship.

What should be distinguished from a speech error is the deliberate combination of seemingly incompatible words: a living corpse, an ordinary miracle... In this case, we have one of the types of tropes - an oxymoron.

In difficult cases, when it is difficult to determine whether certain words can be used together, it is necessary to use a compatibility dictionary

3. Use of synonyms.

Synonyms enrich the language and make our speech figurative. Synonyms may have different functional and stylistic connotations. Thus, the words error, miscalculation, oversight, error are stylistically neutral and commonly used; hole, overlay - colloquial; gaffe – colloquial; blooper - professional slang. Using one of the synonyms without taking it into account stylistic coloring may lead to speech errors.

Example: Having made a mistake, the plant director immediately began to correct it.

When using synonyms, the ability of each of them to be more or less selectively combined with other words is often not taken into account.

Differing in shades of lexical meaning, synonyms can express different degrees of manifestation of a characteristic or action. But, even denoting the same thing, being interchangeable in some cases, in others synonyms cannot be replaced - this leads to a speech error.

Example: Yesterday I was sad. The synonym sad is quite suitable here: Yesterday I was sad. But in two-part sentences these synonyms are interchangeable. I look sadly at our generation...

4. Use of homonyms.

Thanks to the context, homonyms are usually understood correctly. But still, in certain speech situations, homonyms cannot be understood unambiguously.

Example: The crew is in excellent condition. Is the crew a cart or a team? The word crew itself is used correctly. But to reveal the meaning of this word, it is necessary to expand the context.

Very often, ambiguity is caused by the use in speech (especially oral) of homophones (sounding the same, but spelled differently) and homoforms (words that have the same sound and spelling in certain forms). So, when choosing words for a phrase, we must pay attention to the context, which in some speech situations is designed to reveal the meaning of the words.

5. Use of polysemantic words.

When including polysemantic words in our speech, we must be very careful, we must monitor whether the meaning that we wanted to reveal in this speech situation is clear. When using polysemantic words (as well as when using homonyms), context is very important. It is thanks to the context that one or another meaning of a word is clear. And if the context meets its requirements (a semantically complete segment of speech that allows one to establish the meanings of the words or phrases included in it), then each word in the sentence is understandable. But it also happens differently.

Example: He's already sung. It’s not clear: either he started singing and got carried away; or, after singing for a while, he began to sing freely, easily.

6. Verbosity.

The following types of verbosity occur:

6.1. Pleonasm (from the Greek pleonasmos - excess, excessiveness) is the use in speech of words that are close in meaning and therefore logically redundant.

Example: All guests received memorable souvenirs. A souvenir is a keepsake, so memorable is an extra word in this sentence. A variety of pleonasms are expressions such as very huge, very tiny, very beautiful, etc. Adjectives denoting a characteristic in its extremely strong or extremely weak manifestation do not need to specify the degree of the characteristic.

6.2. Using unnecessary words. Superfluous not because their inherent lexical meaning is expressed in other words, but because they are simply not needed in this text.

Example: Then, on April 11, the Druzhba bookstore will take care of this so that you can smile.

6.3. Tautology (from the Greek tauto - the same logos - word) is the repetition of words with the same root or identical morphemes. Not only students’ essays, but also newspapers and magazines are full of tautological errors.

Example: Business leaders are business-minded.

6.4. Predicate splitting. This is a replacement verb predicate synonymous verbal-nominal combination: fight - fight, clean - clean.

Example: The students decided to clean up the school yard. Perhaps in an official business style such expressions are appropriate, but in a speech situation it is better: The students decided to clean the school yard.

Example: In small cheap cafes, well, where people from their neighborhood go, there are usually no empty seats.

7. Lexical incompleteness of the statement.

This error is the opposite of verbosity. An incomplete statement consists of missing a necessary word in the sentence.

Example: The advantage of Kuprin is that there is nothing superfluous. Kuprin may have nothing superfluous, but this sentence is missing (and not even just one) word. Or: “...do not allow statements on the pages of the press and television that could incite ethnic hatred.” So it turns out - “television page”.

When choosing a word, it is necessary to take into account not only its semantics, lexical, stylistic and logical compatibility, but also its scope. The use of words that have a limited sphere of distribution (lexical new formations, outdated words, words of foreign language origin, professionalisms, jargon, dialectisms), should always be motivated by the conditions of the context.

8. New words.

Poorly formed neologisms are speech errors. Example: Last year, 23 thousand rubles were spent on pothole repairs after the spring thaw. And only the context helps to understand: “pothole repair” is the repair of holes.

9. Outdated words.

Archaisms - words that name existing realities, but for some reason have been forced out of active use by synonymous lexical units - must correspond to the style of the text, otherwise they are completely inappropriate.

Example: Today there was an open day at the university. Here the obsolete word now (today, now, currently) is completely inappropriate.

Among the words that have fallen out of active use, historicisms also stand out. Historicisms are words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the concepts they denote: armyak, camisole, bursa, oprichnik, etc. Errors in the use of historicisms are often associated with ignorance of their lexical meaning.

Example: The peasants cannot stand their hard life and go to the main governor of the city. Governor is the head of a region (for example, a province in Tsarist Russia, states in the USA). Consequently, the chief governor is an absurdity; moreover, there could only be one governor in the province, and his assistant was called the vice-governor.

10. Words of foreign origin.

Now many people have an addiction to foreign words, sometimes without even knowing their exact meaning. Sometimes the context does not accept a foreign word.

Example: The work of the conference is limited due to the lack of leading specialists. Limit - set a limit on something, limit it. Foreign word limit in this sentence should be replaced with the words: going slower, stopped, etc.

11. Dialectisms.

Dialectisms are words or stable combinations that are not included in the lexical system of the literary language and belong to one or more dialects of the Russian national language. Dialectisms are justified in artistic or journalistic speech to create speech characteristics heroes. The unmotivated use of dialectisms indicates insufficient knowledge of the norms of the literary language.

Example: A scavenger came to see me and sat there the whole evening. Shaberka is a neighbor. The use of dialectism in this sentence is not justified either by the style of the text or by the purpose of the statement.

12. Colloquial and colloquial words.

Colloquial words are included in the lexical system of the literary language, but are used mainly in oral speech, mainly in the sphere of everyday communication. Colloquial speech is a word, grammatical form or turn of phrase, predominantly of oral speech, used in a literary language, usually for the purpose of a reduced, rough characterization of the subject of speech, as well as simple casual speech containing such words, forms and turns. Colloquial and vernacular vocabulary, in contrast to dialectal (regional) vocabulary, is used in the speech of the entire people.

Example: I have a very thin jacket. Thin (colloquial) – holey, spoiled (thin boot). Errors occur in cases where the use of colloquial and colloquial words is not motivated by context.

13. Professional jargon.

Professionalisms act as colloquial equivalents of terms accepted in a certain professional group: typo - a mistake in the speech of journalists; steering wheel - in the speech of drivers, a steering wheel.

But the unmotivated transfer of professionalism into general literary speech is undesirable. Such professionalisms as sewing, tailoring, listening and others spoil literary speech.

In terms of limited use and the nature of expression (joking, reduced, etc.), professionalisms are similar to jargon and are integral part jargons - peculiar social dialects characteristic of professional or age groups of people (jargons of athletes, sailors, hunters, students, schoolchildren). Jargon is everyday vocabulary and phraseology, endowed with reduced expression and characterized by socially limited use.

Example: I wanted to invite guests to the holiday, but the hut doesn’t allow it. Khibara is a house.

14. Phraseologisms.

It must be remembered that phraseological units always have figurative meaning. Decorating our speech, making it more lively, imaginative, bright, beautiful, phraseological units also give us a lot of trouble - if they are used incorrectly, speech errors appear.

14.1. Errors in learning the meaning of phraseological units.

1. There is a danger of taking phraseological units literally, which can be perceived as free associations of words.
2. Errors may be associated with changes in the meaning of phraseological units.

Example: Khlestakov always casts pearls before swine, but everyone believes him. Here the phraseology “throw pearls before swine”, meaning “to talk about something in vain or prove something to someone who is not able to understand it”, is used incorrectly - in the meaning of “inventing, weaving fables”.

14.2. Errors in mastering the form of phraseological units.

• Grammatical modification of a phraseological unit.

Example: I'm used to giving myself full reports. The form of the number has been changed here. There is a phraseological unit to give account.

Example: He constantly sits with his hands folded. Phraseologisms like folded arms, headlong, headlong retain in their composition the old form of the perfective participle with the suffix -a (-я).

Some phraseological units use short forms of adjectives, replacing them full forms wrong.

• Lexical modification of a phraseological unit.

Example: It's time for you to take charge of your mind. Most phraseological units are impenetrable: an additional unit cannot be introduced into the phraseological unit.

Example: Well, at least hit the wall! Omitting a phraseological unit component is also a speech error.

Example: Everything returns to normal in a spiral!.. There is a phraseological unit back to normal. Substitution of a word is not allowed.

14.3. Changing the lexical compatibility of phraseological units.

Example: These and other questions have big role in the development of this still young science. There has been a mixture of two stable expressions: it plays a role and it matters. You could say this: questions matter... or questions matter a lot.

15. Clichés and cliches.

Officeisms are words and expressions, the use of which is assigned to formal business style, but in other styles of speech they are inappropriate and are cliches.

Example: There is a lack of spare parts.

Stamps are hackneyed expressions with a faded lexical meaning and erased expressiveness. Words, phrases and even entire sentences become stamps, appearing as new, stylistically expressive speech means, but as a result of too frequent use they lose their original imagery.

A type of stamps are universal words. These are words that are used in the most general and vague meanings: question, task, raise, provide, etc. Usually, universal words are accompanied by standard prefixes: work - everyday, level - high, support - warm. There are numerous journalistic cliches (field workers, a city on the Volga), and literary cliches (an exciting image, an angry protest).

Clichés - speech stereotypes, ready-made phrases used as a standard that can be easily reproduced in certain conditions and contexts - are constructive units of speech and, despite frequent use, retain their semantics. Clichés are used in official business documents(summit meeting); V scientific literature(needs to be proven); in journalism (our own correspondent reports from); V different situations colloquial speech (Hello! Goodbye! Who's the last one?).

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Modern linguists approach the definition of the concept of “speech error” in different ways: by a speech error they understand an unsuccessfully chosen word, an incorrectly constructed sentence, a distorted form of a word, and in general any case of deviation from current language norms.

Most full definition speech errors and shortcomings are given in the works of Doctor of Sciences Professor Taisa Alekseevna Ladyzhenskaya, a leading specialist in the field of rhetoric and speech culture. By her definition, speech error- “this is a violation of the requirements correctness speech" and speech impediment– “this is a violation of recommendations related to the concept good speech, that is, rich, precise and expressive.” In other words, if you can’t say (write) like that, it’s a speech error, but if you can say (write) like that, in principle, it’s possible, but it will be inaccurate, meager, and inexpressive—it’s a speech defect.

Test yourself: you may find that you make (or don’t make, which is very encouraging!) mistakes in oral and written speech.

TO speech errors T.A. Ladyzhenskaya includes the following:

1. Misunderstanding of the meaning of a word, using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it. (He back started to command! Right : again, again. The fire is getting bigger got excited, was burning. Right: flared up.)
2. Mixing aspectual and tense forms of the verb. (Into the water jumping rats , ran Lapwings - time mixing. Right: jumping, running or jumped, ran. When arrived December, the weather is harsh changes – mixing of species . Right : or came, changed, or comes, changes.)
3. Poor use of pronouns resulting in unclear or ambiguous speech ( When the boy said goodbye to his father, he did not cry. It is unclear who did not cry, the boy or the father: say He You can talk about both. Right: Saying goodbye to his father, boy didn't cry. Or like this: When the boy said goodbye to his father, he did not cry(this is if we want to say that the father cried).
4. Unjustified use of colloquial and dialect words. (Kolya walked behind. Right: behind, behind.)
5. Confusion of paronymic words. (I was told to stay home, but I across refused. Right: flatly refused . This man is leading festive life. Right: I'm celebrating life.)
6. Pronominal doubling of the subject. (Olya - she was the youngest in the family. Correct: Olya was the youngest in the family.)

TO speech impediments all experts include the following:

1. Violation of the order of words in a sentence. ( The dog helped people dig snow with its paws and muzzle. A narrow strip only connects the island with the shore.)

2. Using an extra word. (He will come in the month of January. Better this way: He will come in January. All guests received memorable souvenirs. Needed: All guests received souvenirs. Souvenir already means " memorable gift».)

3. Failure to distinguish shades of meaning of synonyms or words with similar meanings. (The team lost and the goalkeeper was returning home with sad head. You need this: ... with drooping head. Yesterday I was sadly. Needed: was sad.)

4. Violation of word compatibility (Soldiers fulfilled the oath. The oath cannot be fulfilled, but it can be take an oath, be true to your oath, A execute Can promise, task, order, order.)

5. Unjustified repetition of the same word within a sentence or in adjacent sentences. ( Birds birds are about to touch the water. Better like this: Birds rushed low and low over the river, it seemed that They are about to touch the water.) Note, however, that repetition is not always an indicator of a speech defect. It can enhance the author’s thought and give it a special emotional coloring. Compare: There is a certain level of happiness in life, from which we count, just as we count from sea level. (D.S. Likhachev)

6. The use of nearby or closely related words, or tautology. (This happening with me happened in summer. Better this way: case happened. The watchman was watching at night and slept during the day. It is better to replace one of two words: or the watchman was working or he was guarding. Today hunt something reluctance. Suggest your options for editing this sentence.)

Errors in speech, grammar,
ethical, factual...

Getting ready to check essays on the Unified State Exam

We must admit:
poor education among today's youth.

(From an essay on the Unified State Exam)

Speech errors

Errors associated with incorrect or less successful use of words or phraseological units are classified in school practice as speech errors. Unified State Exam experts evaluate compliance with speech (lexical) norms according to criterion 10: if more than three errors are made in the work, the examinee receives zero points instead of the possible two.

Graduates violate the communicative accuracy of statements, using words and phraseological units in a meaning that is unusual for them or without due consideration of stylistic or emotionally expressive nuances of expressions: This word has no prototype in Russian. People who are stuck in laziness lose a lot. Our officials are sucking up to the mayor. These examples expose the poet as a romantic. Slava appears in this text as a workaholic patriot. Laziness is the monster of modern youth.

Numerous examples mixing paronyms, that is, words with the same root or similar sounding different meanings: The book gives hormonal education to a person. She has always been a closed, hidden person. Crystal honesty. He did not want to be treated for alcohol. The book should be treated with great care, it deserves it. The author maliciously denounces indifferent people.

Pleonasm is a mistake consisting of using an extra word; it is also often found in the essays of graduates: German Germany. The working proletariat. In a rural village. You need to read each book thoughtfully and carefully. But these heroes only talk and chatter. An interesting problem is revealed and touched upon here. The mother stood quietly and silently. These fashionistas are only interested in dresses and outfits. Flattering compliments. Monetary fine.

Examinees are often violated the usual lexical compatibility words– resulting in speech errors: Today's youth read little and do not broaden their horizons. His speech is filled with an abundance of bookish words. Nerves and excitement overwhelmed the author. Today we have a dangerous and ill-mannered teenage generation.The mother stood with a pitiful appearance, tattered, in shabby clothes. The son treats his mother shamelessly. The veteran just wanted more understanding. Each word has its own unrivaled history.

Very little time is devoted to the study of phraseological units in the school curriculum - as a result, students have a very vague idea of ​​​​the norms for using stable combinations. They do not know the meaning of phraseological units well, often distort their composition, which leads to the destruction of the two-dimensionality of the image underlying it; There is a contradiction between the images and the context, which allows us to understand the expression literally:

One can only agree with this position with a squeaky heart.

These children were deprived of joy.

A difficult fate has befallen our people.

The children were poor; they ate bread and salt.

Low bow to those who fought.

A joke was played on him.

This act was the last straw that overflowed the barrel of gunpowder.

To prevent such hooliganism, it is necessary to strengthen and enlarge the internal organs.

Stylistic errors

Most of speech errors constitute errors that are actually stylistic. These are anachronisms, that is, errors due to mixing the vocabulary of different historical and social eras: Marmeladov once had a job, but then he was laid off. Errors resulting from confusion of expressions are also stylistic. different styles, unmotivated use of dialectal, colloquial expressions, which contradicts the norms of the literary language: I slightly disagree with the author's point of view. Gogol showed Plyushkin with a similar miserliness. We need to fill our heads with knowledge. Catherine II sought to ensure that philosophers and writers glorified her name throughout the world. Author's position expresses a proverb that says: “They meet you by their clothes.”–they guide you according to your mind.” Sharikov, having received some power, became a lawless man.

Quite often, speech defects in the texts of examination essays are felt, but it is very difficult to classify them; in this case, in our opinion, the score should be reduced according to criterion 6, and not 10. The same should be done with the next group of errors leading to a violation of the requirements for purity, richness and expressiveness of speech - these are speech defects that impair speech, but this is less gross violations than mistakes. Shortcomings are considered from the point of view of “better - worse, well said - not quite well said”; they are assessed less strictly both at school and by experts at the Unified State Examination. This is a tautology - a mistake consisting in the use of words that are repeated in a small context, the use of weed words: It was as if I looked in the mirror and saw myself. Based on the above, Tendryakov concludes...... I think that we should not be angry with the Ukrainians and even the Estonians.

Grammar errors

Criterion 9 assesses compliance with grammatical norms in the texts of examination essays. Grammatical errors are caused by violation of the norms of word formation (word formation errors), form formation (morphological errors), norms of syntactic connection of words in phrases and sentences, as well as simple sentences as part of complex ones (syntax errors).

Word formation errors- this is the result of word creation in violation of norms: words are formed according to models that do not exist in the literary language or it is not taken into account that the totality of actually existing lexemes does not completely coincide with the system of words that could be in the language, but they are not used in speech:

Shyness, shame, shame at the poor appearance of the mother. Bribery is the scourge of our time. Mistakes of heroes. The main problem is the timidity of the young teacher. Dealing with impudence is difficult. Vernacular words. Social order. Along the asphalt path. Since childhood, she had a penchant for music. The warriors showed tenacity and courage. We must understand that all this was not done in vain. The steadfast character of the characters evokes respect. L. Tolstoy called the people pushers of history. It is known that Gumilyov ridiculed Akhmatova’s talent.

Defects in the formation of forms of certain parts of speech are also varied and numerous.

At first Petrusha Grinev was also an undergrowth.

A worse example cannot be given.

In those years, Russia was hungry and poor.

Vysotsky’s work cannot be confused with anyone else.

You can talk about the fate of both sisters.

The veteran wanted words without falsehood.

The television news constantly reports violence against people.

We learn about their plans.

A person was needed who could help in this matter.

Gogol also wrote about the greatness of the Russian people.

Let's remember Gorky's Larra - he is also proud and selfish.

What kind of courage one must have to sing like that before death!

Vadim was haunted by remorse, but not for long.

Youth is a good time. Young, walking.

I was overcome by heart-fluttering thoughts.

Recently, the Estonian Seimas approved a resolution to demolish the monument to the liberating soldier.

The Russian language is incomprehensible.

This was the most wonderful way out of the situation.

Among syntax errors there are violations of control norms, norms of agreement between the predicate and the subject, incorrect word order in a sentence, confusion of direct and indirect speech, errors in construction complex sentence:

Upon arrival in Britain, he himself immediately goes to London.

From a backward country, Russia has become a great power.

Russian youth are ready to lie down on the embrasure to prevent this.

Those who love literature know this name.

Good triumphs over evil - even fairy tales convince us of this.

D. Likhachev focuses attention on the problem of nationalism.

Not only he, but even all of us together could not do anything.

To confirm this, I will cite the following episode.

Cultural monuments that should be proud of, not destroyed, are being destroyed. Travel is not only a source of information, but also a component of history.

A good example This problem is our public transport.

For the scientist's feat he was awarded the order.

I am sincerely surprised and admired by the writer's talent.

Violations are especially common in sentences with participial phrases:

Commenting on this text, it seems to me that the author loves to travel.

After visiting the museums, the traveler became bored looking at all these physical treasures.

Without caring about the monuments of small nations, they can disappear from the face of the earth.

Sitting by the river, I like to watch the life of ducks.

Without developing your talent, you can ruin it.

Since 2006, the assessment system for long-response items has included two additional ones: K–11 – Compliance with ethical standards and K–12 – Maintaining factual accuracy in background material.

Ethical mistakes

In the first case we mean special kind speech errors - ethical. Not often, but there were works in which the manifestation of verbal aggression and hostility was recorded, statements were found that humiliated human dignity, expressing an arrogant and cynical attitude towards human personality:

This text infuriates me.

Mikhalkov is a writer himself, so he encourages everyone to read books.

The works of Tver graduates are also not completely free from shortcomings of this kind:

You have to be completely crazy to read books today.

But you can’t be too kind, because you yourself will end up without pants.

Ageev is a very bright writer of his time, the writer’s story is an example of human stupidity.

I'm tired of these pensioners: they all cry; but if you don’t like it, let them go to the next world.

Why school curriculum forces you to read all the junk that is called the classics?

While studying at school, I, like everyone else, modern youth, was doing nonsense.

It is ethically incorrect to call a writer only by his first name and patronymic: Alexander Sergeevich believed...; condescendingly evaluate the actions of famous writers: Dmitry Likhachev expressed his thoughts quite clearly. I would like to thank the author of the text for the ability to convey my thoughts.

The use of crude jargon is also considered an ethical error: Small nations gave our country a lot of things, knowledge, and we, like the last pigs, turned our backs on them. If I had been there, I would have given this cupcake a bite to eat for such an attitude towards my mother.

Factual errors

Maintaining factual accuracy in background material is also assessed against a specific criterion. This refers to errors when retelling the content literary works, confusion in dates historical events, V titles of works, the names of the characters, the names of their authors, inaccuracies in quoting, etc.: The book means a lot to me, because Lenin said: “Live forever, learn!” Bazarov was a nihilist and therefore killed the old woman with an ax. The soldiers who defeated fascism returned to peaceful life and continued to write: “Moscow, how much has merged in this sound for the Russian heart!” Having killed a moneylender for money, Raskolnikov also kills her pregnant sister Lizaveta. Happiness for Oblomov, as you know, was loneliness and indifference. In Turgenev’s story “Crime and Punishment”...... The examinees distorted the name of the writer V. Tendryakov as follows: Tundrikov, Trendyakov, Trundikov, although it was in the text before the eyes of the writers.

Exercise. Find and correct speech errors.

Examples of sentences for finding and qualifying speech errors:

Bulgakov regretted that white army crashed.

This young man repels everyone with his selfishness and selfishness.

The young teacher had no choice but to show his enormous knowledge.

This fact made a huge impression on me.

The main feature Russia has always had respect for rank.

Nowadays, no one does anything selflessly and for free.

This man was a nobleman from the core to the bones.

This is the main problem inherent in the text.

After reading the text, you clearly understand and see the problem that the author conveys to us.

Chess develops combativeness and memory.

We are advised to listen to Mozart's music to improve mental performance.

The writer of this article says that the great Volga is located throughout Russia.

The name of my favorite writer Gogol burns like a hot coal in the fire of world literature.

A high school student, ashamed of his mother's poverty, lies to the boys that she is his former governess.

Vadichka burned with shame in front of his comrades, but still approached his mother.

This problem is provoked by the active development of science.

It was fate.

She wanted to help her family and her father.

School years were not lost in vain.

Nowadays people read a book out of necessity.

The negative material presented in the article can be used when preparing future graduates for exams.

N.M. SERGEEVA,
Tver

Introduction. 3

Causes and types of speech errors. 4

Factors leading to communication failure. 8

Conclusion. 11

References.. 12

Introduction

Russian language is one of the richest languages ​​in the world. He has a huge vocabulary. No less important is that language is also a tool of thinking. Human thinking is based on language means, and the results of mental activity are formalized in the form of certain speech units - statements complete in meaning and complete texts.

Language is a form of existence national culture, a manifestation of the very spirit of the nation. In proverbs and sayings, songs and fairy tales that have survived to this day, in archaic words, the language contains references to the features of the past life of the people. Written in Russian greatest works literature.

The ability to construct your speech competently and effectively is a necessary prerequisite for the training of highly qualified specialists of any profile. Mastering the culture of speech allows you to avoid interference in communication when attention is paid to the illiterate, tongue-tied form of the statement, and not to its content. Knowing the rules of stylistics helps to communicate not only competently, but also expediently. Familiarity with the basics of rhetoric contributes to the development of the ability to quickly perceive speech in all types of words, the ability to create a monologue, conduct a dialogue and manage it.

The word is the most important unit of language, the most diverse and voluminous. The word not only names an object or phenomenon, but also performs an emotionally expressive function.

And when choosing words, we must pay attention to their meaning, stylistic coloring, usage, and compatibility with other words. Since violation of at least one of these criteria can lead to a speech error.

The purpose of the work is to study the types and causes of language errors and communication failures.

Causes and types of speech errors

Speech errors are errors not in the construction of a sentence, not in the structure of a language unit, but in its use, most often in the use of a word, i.e., a violation of lexical norms.

The causes of speech errors will be discussed below.

1. Misunderstanding the meaning of the word:

a) Using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it.

Example: The fire grew hotter and hotter. IN in this case the mistake lies in the incorrect choice of the word “inflame” - 1. Heat to a very high temperature, become heated. 2. Become very excited, become overwhelmed by some strong feeling. Flare up - start to burn strongly or well, evenly.

b) The use of significant and function words without taking into account their semantics.

Example: Thanks to a fire that broke out from a fire, a large area of ​​forest burned down. In modern Russian, the preposition “thanks” retains a certain semantic connection with the verb to thank and is usually used only in cases where the reasons that cause a desired result are spoken of: thanks to someone’s help, support. The error arises due to the semantic distraction of the preposition from the original verb “to thank”. In this sentence, the preposition “thanks to” should be replaced by one of the following: due to, as a result, as a consequence.

c) Selection of words-concepts with different bases of division (concrete and abstract vocabulary).

Example: We offer complete cure for alcoholics and other diseases. If we are talking about diseases, then the word alcoholics should be replaced with alcoholism. An alcoholic is someone who suffers from alcoholism. Alcoholism is a painful addiction to drinking alcoholic beverages.

d) Incorrect use of paronyms.

Example: A person leads a festive life. I'm in an idle mood today. Idle and festive are very similar words, with the same root. But they have different meanings: 1) festive - an adjective to the noun holiday (celebratory dinner, festive mood); 2) idle - not filled, not busy with business, work (idle life). To restore the meaning of the statements in the example, you need to swap the words.

2. Lexical compatibility.

When choosing a word, you should take into account not only the meaning that is inherent in it in the literary language, but also lexical compatibility. The boundaries of lexical compatibility are determined by the semantics of words, their stylistic affiliation, emotional coloring, grammatical properties, etc.

Example: Their strong friendship, tempered by life’s trials, was noticed by many. The word “friendship” is combined with the adjective “strong” - strong friendship.

3. Use of synonyms.

Synonyms enrich the language and make our speech figurative. Synonyms may have different functional and stylistic connotations. Thus, the words “mistake”, “miscalculation”, “oversight”, “error” are stylistically neutral and commonly used. “Proruha”, “overlay” are colloquial words; “mistake” - colloquial; “blunder” is professional slang. Using one of the synonyms without taking into account its stylistic coloring can lead to a speech error.

Example: Having made a mistake, the plant director immediately began to correct it.

4. Use of homonyms.

Thanks to the context, homonyms are usually understood correctly. But still, in certain speech situations, homonyms cannot be understood unambiguously.

Example: The crew is in excellent condition. Is the crew a cart or a team? The word “crew” itself is used correctly. But to reveal the meaning of this word, it is necessary to expand the context.

5. Use of polysemantic words.

When including polysemantic words in our speech, we must be very careful, we must monitor whether the meaning that we wanted to reveal in this speech situation is clear.

Example: He has already sung. It’s not clear: either he started singing and got carried away; or, after singing for a while, he began to sing freely, easily.

6. Lexical incompleteness of the statement

This error is the opposite of verbosity. An incomplete statement consists of missing a necessary word in the sentence.

Example: The advantage of Kuprin is that there is nothing superfluous. Kuprin may have nothing superfluous, but this sentence is missing (and not even just one) word.

7. New words.

Poorly formed neologisms are also speech errors.

Example: Last year, 23 thousand rubles were spent on pothole repairs after the spring thaw. And only the context helps to understand: “pothole repair” is the repair of holes.

8. Outdated words.

Archaisms - words that name existing realities, but for some reason have been forced out of active use by synonymous lexical units - must correspond to the style of the text, otherwise they are completely inappropriate.

Example: Today there was an open day at the university. Here the obsolete word now (today, now, currently) is completely inappropriate.

9. Words of foreign origin.

Now many people have an addiction to foreign words, sometimes without even knowing their exact meaning. Sometimes the context does not accept a foreign word.

Example: The work of the conference is limited due to the lack of leading specialists. Limit - set a limit on something, limit it. The foreign word “limit” in this sentence should be replaced with the words: it goes slower, it has stopped. Dialectisms are justified in artistic or journalistic speech to create speech characteristics of heroes. The unmotivated use of dialectisms indicates insufficient knowledge of the norms of the literary language.

Example: A scavenger came to me and sat there the whole evening. Shaberka is a neighbor. The use of dialectism in this sentence is not justified either by the style of the text or by the purpose of the statement.

10. Colloquial and colloquial words.

Colloquial and vernacular vocabulary, in contrast to dialect (regional) vocabulary, is used in the speech of the entire people.

Example: I have a very thin jacket. Thin (colloquial) – holey, spoiled (thin boot). Errors occur in cases where the use of colloquial and colloquial words is not motivated by context.

Thus, when choosing a word, it is necessary to take into account not only its semantics, lexical, stylistic and logical compatibility, but also its scope. The use of words that have a limited sphere of distribution (lexical new formations, obsolete words, words of foreign language origin, professionalisms, jargon, dialectisms) should always be motivated by the conditions of the context.